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Crédit Agricole

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Crédit Agricole Group
Company typePublic, Cooperative
IndustryFinancial services
Founded5 November 1894; 129 years ago (1894-11-05)
Headquarters
Montrouge
,
France
Area served
Worldwide
Key people
Services
RevenueIncrease €38.16 billion (2022)[2]
Decrease €13.70 billion (2022)[2]
Decrease €8.14 billion (2022)[2]
AUMIncrease €1.90 trillion (2022)
Total assetsIncrease €2.37 trillion (2022)[2]
Total equityIncrease €133.7 billion (2022)[2]
Number of employees
Decrease 145,000 (2022)[2]
Subsidiaries
Capital ratioIncrease 14.4% (CET1)
Websitecredit-agricole.com
Footnotes / references
Crédit Agricole Group's 2016 consolidated financial statement[3]

Crédit Agricole Group (French: [kʁedit‿aɡʁikɔl]), sometimes called La banque verte (lit. 'The green bank', due to its historical ties to farming),[4] is a French international banking group and the world's largest cooperative financial institution. It is the second largest bank in France, after BNP Paribas, as well as the third largest in Europe and tenth largest in the world.[5] It consists of a network of Crédit Agricole local banks, 39 Agricole regional banks and a central institute, the Crédit Agricole S.A.. It is listed through Crédit Agricole S.A., as an intermediate holding company, on Euronext Paris' first market and is part of the CAC 40 stock market index. Local banks of the group owned the regional banks, in turn the regional banks majority owned the S.A. via a holding company, in turn the S.A. owned part of the subsidiaries of the group, such as LCL, the Italian network and the CIB unit. It is considered to be a systemically important bank by the Financial Stability Board.

It was the title sponsor of the Crédit Agricole professional road cycling team from 1998 to 2008.

Crédit Agricole has been designated as a Significant Institution since the entry into force of European Banking Supervision in late 2014, and as a consequence is directly supervised by the European Central Bank.[6][7]

History

[edit]

In the second half of the 19th century, French farmers struggled to obtain long-term, flexible, reasonably-priced credit. There were several attempts to set up farming banks, including Crédit Foncier de France in 1861, but none were successful.

Birth of Crédit Agricole and creation of the local and regional banks 1894–1900

[edit]
Jules Méline spearheaded the creation of the first local banks
In 1921, the newly created National Office of Agricultural Credit (ONCA) moved from temporary offices to the corner building at the intersection of rue Las-Cases and rue Casimir-Périer, which can thus be viewed as the group's first permanent headquarters.[1]
In the 1930s, the Caisse Nationale du Crédit Agricole moved across the square to a group of buildings with an entrance at 30, rue Las Cases, which remained its head office until the 1966 move to Montparnasse. It is now offices of the French National Assembly.[1]

Crédit Agricole can trace its history back to the end of the 19th century, specifically to the Act of 1884 establishing the freedom of professional association, which authorised, among other things, the creation of farm unions and the foundation of local mutual banks.[8] Société de Crédit Agricole[9] was created on 23 February 1885 at Salins-les-Bains in the district of Poligny in the Jura region.[8] It was the first of its kind in France.

Drawing on this experience to promote lending to small family farms, the Act of 5 November 1894, which had the support of the Minister for Agriculture Jules Méline, paved the way for the creation of Crédit Agricole's local banks. The first local banks were set up by local elites, including agronomists, teachers, and property owners, with farmers playing a minority role.

In the early years, business consisted exclusively of short-term loans provided as advances on harvests, enabling farmers to live more comfortably. Medium-term and long-term loans were added later, making it possible to buy equipment and livestock.

The 1894 Act did not confer any financial advantages, and the local banks soon faced financial problems, such as a lack of capital and insufficient collateral from small farmers. It was not until 1897 that the government addressed these problems by requiring the Banque de France to fund Crédit Agricole through an endowment of 40 million gold francs and an annual fee of 2 million francs. A year later, the Act of 1898 resolved the collateral issues.[10] Meanwhile, the Act of 31 March 1899 instituted a commission within the Ministry for Agriculture to distribute the government advances between the regional banks, which were also created at this time. These cooperative entities brought together the local banks in their catchment area and acted as their clearing organisations.

Building nationwide coverage 1900–1945

[edit]

More and more local and regional banks were established from the turn of the century. Every region had at least one by the eve of the First World War. However, the government continued to provide three-quarters of the funding, and short-term lending still accounted for the lion's share of business despite the authorisation to issue long-term loans granted by the Acts of 29 December 1906 and 19 March 1910. With some regions becoming isolated owing to the War, the need for a central bank to regulate business became more apparent, especially as Crédit Agricole was asked to provide financing to rebuild farming operations damaged during the conflict.

New legislation of 5 August 1920 established a public central clearing organisation for the regional banks: the Office National de Crédit Agricole (ONCA), with Louis Tardy[8] as its chief executive officer, merging two services that were previously embedded in the Ministry of Agriculture. In 1926, the institution was renamed Caisse Nationale de Crédit Agricole (CNCA).[1]

In the 1920s, the bank continued to build its nationwide coverage and expand its business activities, notably by introducing loans to small-scale rural craftsmen in 1920, financing rural electrification, and financing local authorities in rural areas from 1923.[8]

Local and regional banks did not emerge from the 1930 crisis unscathed. The Caisse Nationale took on a greater role and aided the most heavily exposed banks. A joint deposit guarantee fund was set up in 1935. The following year, Crédit Agricole provided additional support by financing wheat stocks through discounting when the National Cereals Board (ONIC) was established. The payment mechanisms used helped to make cheques and bank accounts more popular in the countryside.[8]

Between 1939 and 1945, the Vichy regime imposed stricter state supervision on Crédit Agricole. Major financial developments also took place at this time, including the creation of the five-year note.[11]

Post-War period and creation of Fédération Nationale du Crédit Agricole 1945–1966

[edit]
Building at 55, rue La Boétie in Paris, seat of the FNCA until 2001

To finance the post-war reconstruction and encourage the mechanisation of farming, CNCA stepped up deposit-taking to supplement the funds provided by the government. The regional banks opened many offices, with the total increasing from 1,000 in 1947 to 2,259 by 1967.[8]

In 1959, Crédit Agricole was authorised by decree to finance property loans for primary residences in rural areas, irrespective of the status of the owner (even non-farmers).[9]

Crédit Agricole continued to modernise, with an influx of new managerial talent both in the regional banks and at CNCA. In 1960, Paul Driant [fr] became the first Chairman of CNCA to come from a farming background. He remained in this position for 14 years.[12]

Birth of a universal bank 1966–1988

[edit]

In 1966, as part of efforts to boost savings and remove Crédit Agricole from its budget, the government gave CNCA financial autonomy.[13] Savings inflows no longer passed through the Treasury, and CNCA was now responsible for balancing the surpluses and deficits of the regional banks. The 1971 "Rurality Act" extended Crédit Agricole's potential financing sources to rural zones and to new types of customers, such as craftsmen and food producers. Lending to SMEs and mid-tier firms followed after.

The Banking Reform of 1966 allowed the organisation to offer households the same products as those provided by competitors, including passbook accounts and home savings plans.[14]

The first subsidiaries were set up at the end of the 1960s to address the specific needs of CNCA: Union d'études et d'investissements (UI) was created in 1967 to make equity investments, followed by Segespar for asset management in 1968, and Unicrédit to grant loans to food producers in 1971.[15] Crédit Agricole began distributing home purchase savings products from 1967, government-regulated mortgages from 1972 and first-time-buyer loans in 1977.

In 1976, the group adopted the slogan "le bon sens près de chez vous" ("common sense close to home").[8][16]

Crédit Agricole opened its first foreign branch, in Chicago,[14] in 1979.

The group's business diversification started in the 1980s. The Predica [fr] life insurance subsidiary was set up in 1986, while property & casualty unit Pacifica [fr] was created in 1990. The group expanded into bancassurance, offering the first retirement savings plans. At this time, many local bank directors were also directors of Groupama, an insurer from the farming sector. There was talk of a merger between the two, but this did not come to pass.

Institutional changes 1988–2001

[edit]
Building above the Gare Montparnasse on 91, boulevard Pasteur (right), after renovation in the late 1990s: former CNCA headquarters from 1966 to 2010,[17] now head office of Amundi

On 18 January 1988, the CNCA Mutualisation Act came into force.[18] CNCA was reincorporated into a public limited company, with a 90% stake sold to the regional banks and 10% to staff. Crédit Agricole became fully independent of the government, putting an end to the latter's practice of skimming off surplus funds. In 1990, Crédit Agricole lost the monopoly on granting low-interest loans to farmers and one year later, in 1991, the "normalisation" process was completed as it was allowed to begin financing large corporations.[19]

International expansion continued with the acquisition of stakes in Banco Ambrosiano Veneto in Italy in 1989 and Banco Espírito Santo in Portugal in 1991.

Consolidation among the regional banks began officially in 1990, with the aim of reducing costs. The aim was to halve the number of regional banks, and that objective had been surpassed by the turn of the 21st century. Meanwhile, 18 of the 94 regional banks were listed on the secondary market through issues of cooperative investment certificates, although most of the share capital of the regional banks remained in the hands of the 5.5 million client stakeholders.

In 1993, Lucien Douroux, who led the plan to mutualise FNCA, became CNCA's first chief executive officer,[20] having been appointed by Crédit Agricole from existing staff.

In 1996, the group bought Banque Indosuez and then created Indocam, an asset management subsidiary (renamed Crédit Agricole Asset Management in 1999), and Crédit Agricole Indosuez for corporate and investment banking. In 1999, diversification continued as the group took a stake in the newly privatised Crédit Lyonnais, and acquired leading consumer finance company Sofinco.

CNCA was listed on the stock market in 2001 under the name Crédit Agricole S.A. This gave the regional banks a listed vehicle through which to carry out major acquisitions.

Crédit Agricole in the 21st century

[edit]

Business overview

[edit]

The group's acquisitions enabled it to strengthen its leadership in French retail banking, expand its position in corporate and investment banking and build up its international network of branches and subsidiaries. By now, the group was the number-one bank in France with 28% of the domestic market, the global number-two by revenues and number-ten by profits, according to Fortune magazine,[21] and number-15 worldwide according to Forbes rankings.[22]

Crédit Agricole and the 2008–2012 crisis

[edit]

Although less negatively impacted than some rivals by the 2007–2008 financial crisis, when the interbank lending market seized up, Crédit Agricole was forced in January 2008 to sell its long-standing stake in Suez for €1.3 billion[23] and then in May 2008 to organise a €5.9 billion rights issue to which all the regional banks subscribed to meet Basel II regulatory requirements. It also undertook a €5 billion programme of non-strategic asset disposals.

At the end of 2008, the government decided to loan France's six largest banks €21 billion in two tranches, at an interest rate of 8%, to enable them to continue to play their role in the economy. Crédit Agricole did not take part in the second tranche[24] and repaid the government in October 2009. Crédit Agricole's crisis exit strategy was well received by the markets, with the share price gaining more than 40% over 2009.

In 2012, Crédit Agricole continued to report negative results, posting a loss of around €3 billion in the third quarter. The Greek branch Emporiki was separated from its profitable wealthy parts in Albania, Bulgaria and Romania which were integrated into the Crédit Agricole group. The whole investment into Emporiki cost around €9 billion. The remaining Greek part was sold off to Alpha Bank for €1. Crédit Agricole also withdrew totally from Spanish bank Bankinter, resulting in a book loss of €193 million, and took a massive €600 million write-down on consumer credit, notably owing to difficulties in Italy.[25] Furthermore, Crédit Agricole had to write down the goodwill on its balance sheet. Goodwill amounted to €17.7 billion in September 2012, well above the actual value.[26] In early February 2013, the bank announced that it would book €3.8 billion in writedowns and costs – a record amount according to the media.[27]

Mergers and acquisitions from 2014

[edit]

In March 2014, the Crédit Agricole Group unveiled its medium-term strategic plan,[28][29] which put the emphasis on retail banking, insurance and saving. Internationally, the group decided to refocus on its core markets, starting with Italy, the group's second-largest market.

The Crédit Agricole Group sold its Bulgarian subsidiary to Corporate Commercial Bank for €160 million.[30] On 22 April 2014, Crédit Agricole S.A., Crédit Agricole Nord and Crédit Agricole Nord-Est announced that they would sell 50% of their stake in Crelan S.A., a Belgian bank created out of the merger of Crédit Agricole Belgique and Centea, to Caisses coopératives belges by June 2015.[31]

In 2017, the group bought 3 small Italian banks.[32]

Corporate governance

[edit]

Crédit Agricole has a three-tier structure, comprising the local banks, the regional banks (and their branches and equity investments) and Crédit Agricole S.A. (and its subsidiaries). The local and regional banks are cooperative companies. Crédit Agricole S.A. is a société anonyme. Crédit Agricole is one of the leading cooperative companies in the world.[33]

Promoting employment for people with disabilities

Through an association set up to promote the employment of people with disabilities within Crédit Agricole (HECA), the Crédit Agricole regional banks devote resources to the recruitment, integration and continued employment of disabled workers. Measures include workstation modifications, transport facilities and training. Since a lack of training makes it harder for people with disabilities to get work, Crédit Agricole has set up work/study training programmes to enable people who have their high school diploma to receive post-secondary qualifications. The goal was to recruit more than 800 disabled persons between 2006 and end-2010, and by end-2009, more than 360 permanent contracts and 670 work/study contracts had been signed.[34] Former Miss France runner-up Sophie Vouzelaud, who has been deaf from birth, is HECA's official ambassador.[35]

Promoting the cooperative model

The regional banks help to promote the cooperative model locally through a variety of initiatives, such as the Perspectives Mutualistes conference series (Pau in 2006, Angers in 2007, Reims in 2008, Orléans in 2009), and by issuing special bank cards for stakeholders.

Senior management of Crédit Agricole S.A.
Board of directors

The Board is made up of members elected by the annual general meeting, representatives of trade organisations, members elected by employees, a non-voting member and a representative of the Works Council.

A complex structure

The regional banks own 54% of Crédit Agricole S.A., which in turn holds 25% of their capital in the form of non-voting cooperative securities (certificats coopératifs d'associés). An internal debate is continually underway on striking a balance between growing activities that serve the regional banks directly and promoting businesses that lie outside their sphere. Institutional investors, particularly in the UK and US, are not always at ease with this approach.

Brand identity

[edit]

Slogan

[edit]
  • 1976 to 1987: "Le bon sens près de chez vous" ("Common sense close to home");[9][37]
  • 1987 to 1994: "Le bon sens en action" ("Common sense in action");[9][38]
  • 1994 to 2005: "L'imagination dans le bon sens" ("Imagination guided by common sense" but also "Imagination in the right direction");[9][39]
  • 2005 to 2011: "Une relation durable, ça change la vie" ("A lasting relationship changes your life");[40]
  • Since 2011: "Le bon sens a de l'avenir" ("Common sense has a future").[41]

Visual identity

[edit]
  • 1971: third logo, combining the letters C and A.[42]
    1971: third logo, combining the letters C and A.[42]
  • 1987: creation of the current logo, which summarises the group's desire to continue to move forward and to favour openness towards the outside world.[42]
    1987: creation of the current logo, which summarises the group's desire to continue to move forward and to favour openness towards the outside world.[42]

Financial and market data

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The cooperative investment certificates of 15 regional banks, and the shares of Crédit Agricole S.A., the group holding company, are listed on the Paris stock exchange. Crédit Agricole S.A. is also a member of the Dow Jones, Euro Stoxx 50, SBF 120, Euronext 100, ASPI Eurozone and FTSE4Good Index.

Controversies

[edit]
  • In September 2007 Credit Agricole had to book a €250 million charge related to an unauthorized trading loss at its New York subsidiary.[43]
  • On 18 April 2008, Credit Agricole revealed that it would post $1.2 billion in losses related to subprime mortgage securities. In May 2008 Credit Agricole sought to raise €5.9 billion in equity capital from its shareholders. The shares controversially sold off from €19 to €6 over the successive period as the financial crisis escalated.[44]
  • In May 2008 Credit Agricole identified €5 billion of asset disposals including the bank's 5.6 percent stake in Italian bank Intesa Sanpaolo, which was worth an estimated €3 billion.
  • The group purchased in August 2006 Emporiki Bank for €2.2 billion which it later sold for one euro after suffering €6 billion of losses in the investment.[45]
  • In 2010 the French government's Autorité de la concurrence (the department in charge of regulating competition) fined eleven banks, including Crédit Agricole, the sum of €384.9 million for colluding to charge unjustified fees on check processing, especially for extra fees charged during the transition from paper check transfer to "Exchanges Check-Image" electronic transfer.[46][47]
  • In 2022, subsidiaries of Crédit Agricole that operate from Switzerland and Monaco agreed to pay over $1 million to the United States for violating sanctions against a number of countries, including Sudan, Syria, Cuba, and the Crimea region of Ukraine.[48]

See also

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References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d "De Las Cases à Jean Jaurès : Crédit Agricole S.A. à travers ses sièges". Crédit Agricole. 2011.
  2. ^ a b c d e f "Amendment A01 to the Universal registration document". credite-agricole.com. Retrieved 3 April 2023.
  3. ^ "Financial review at 31 December 2019 – Update A.01 of the registration document, registered with the AMF on 21 March, 2019 under number D.17-0197" (PDF). Crédit Agricole. 3 April 2020. Retrieved 10 February 2020.
  4. ^ "Crédit Agricole : la banque verte s'engage à devenir arc-en-ciel". Boursier.com. 23 January 2008. Archived from the original on 6 November 2014. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  5. ^ "The world's 100 largest banks, 2021". S&P Global Market Intelligence. Archived from the original on 26 July 2021. Retrieved 13 September 2021.
  6. ^ "The list of significant supervised entities and the list of less significant institutions" (PDF). European Central Bank. 4 September 2014.
  7. ^ "List of supervised entities" (PDF). European Central Bank. 1 January 2023.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g "History of Credit Agricole group". Credit-Agricole.com. Credit-Agricole.com. Archived from the original on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  9. ^ a b c d e "Que de bon sens!". Stratégies.fr. 14 January 2000. Archived from the original on 12 August 2014. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  10. ^ "Décret du 9 février 1921 relatif à l'application de la loi du 5 août 1920 sur le crédit mutuel et la coopération agricole". legifrance.gouv.fr. 18 January 2007. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  11. ^ "La croissance de l'entre-deux-guerres" (PDF). histoiredentreprise.com. December 2009. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 December 2013. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  12. ^ "Fiche de Paul Driant". senat.fr. Archived from the original on 22 December 2013. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  13. ^ "Répartition du capital de Crédit Agricole S.A." la-marque.com. Archived from the original on 1 September 2014. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  14. ^ a b "Du monde rural à la Bourse, la longue marche du Crédit Agricole". Lesechos.fr. 6 July 2001. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  15. ^ "L'obsession du crédit aux PME". Lemonde.fr. 7 January 2013. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  16. ^ "Oui, le bon sens a de l'avenir !". marquenemo.typepad.com. 17 October 2011. Archived from the original on 7 June 2017. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  17. ^ Réjane Reibaud (10 August 2010). "Les banques s'installent de plus en plus en périphérie de Paris". Les Echos.
  18. ^ "Loi n° 88-50 du 18 janvier 1988 relative à la mutualisation de la Caisse nationale de crédit agricole". legifrance.gouv.fr. 10 December 2004. Archived from the original on 15 March 2014. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  19. ^ "Histoire de la société Crédit agricole". Andlil.com. 20 May 2013. Archived from the original on 6 June 2016. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  20. ^ "Banque Lucien Douroux le paysan conquérant". LePoint.fr. 15 June 1996. Archived from the original on 29 April 2014. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  21. ^ "Fortune Global 500". Fortune.com. Archived from the original on 26 July 2014. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  22. ^ "The Global 2000". Forbes.com. Archived from the original on 17 February 2011. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  23. ^ "Crédit Agricole vend sa participation dans Suez". Lefigaro.fr. 14 January 2008. Archived from the original on 23 August 2014. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  24. ^ "Le Crédit Agricole n'utilisera pas la seconde tranche d'aide d'Etat". 30 January 2009. Archived from the original on 5 June 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  25. ^ "Encore des mauvaises surprises pour Crédit agricole". 9 November 2011. Archived from the original on 26 June 2015. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  26. ^ "Opération véritée en vue sur les comptes". 31 January 2013. Archived from the original on 20 December 2015. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  27. ^ "Le Crédit agricole s'achemine vers une perte 2012 historique". 1 February 2013. Archived from the original on 5 January 2014. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  28. ^ "Crédit Agricole: présente son plan à moyen terme". 20 March 2013. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  29. ^ "Crédit Agricole : le groupe revient aux fondamentaux pour se développer". Boursier.com. 18 August 2014. Archived from the original on 13 August 2014. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  30. ^ "Credit Agricole agrees sale of Bulgarian unit". 22 January 2014. Archived from the original on 20 August 2014. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  31. ^ "Le Crédit agricole cède ses 50% dans la banque belge Crelan". Challenges. 22 April 2014. Archived from the original on 20 August 2014. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  32. ^ "Credit Agricole Bucks Trend as Lender Sees Resilient Trading". Bloomberg.com. 14 February 2018. Archived from the original on 15 February 2018. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
  33. ^ "Global 300". Archived from the original on 11 June 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  34. ^ "Déjà plus de 360 CDI et 670 contrats en alternance mis en place depuis 2006 au sein des Caisses régionales de Crédit agricole" (in French). Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  35. ^ "Témoignages sur le handicap". Crédit Agricole. Archived from the original on 23 February 2011. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  36. ^ "Crédit Agricole to appoint Philippe Brassac as chief executive". Financial Times. 15 February 2015. Archived from the original on 10 November 2016.
  37. ^ "MMA : Assurance pour le bonheur". Stratégies.fr. 31 August 2001. Archived from the original on 7 June 2015. Retrieved 19 August 2014.
  38. ^ "Slogan à nouveau signé HCM (Havas Conseil Marsteller) et le logo est retouché par l'agence Desgrippes&Associés, Stratégies Magazine no 1202". Stratégies. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  39. ^ "Campagne " Imagine " pour l'année du centenaire du Crédit agricole par FCB (Publicis) qui avait gagné le budget trois ans plus tôt en 1991, Stratégies Magazine no 1202". Stratégies. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  40. ^ "Deux banques valent-elles vraiment mieux qu'une ?". Stratégies.fr. 29 August 2005. Archived from the original on 12 August 2014. Retrieved 19 August 2014.
  41. ^ "Le Crédit agricole retrouve le bon sens". Stratégies.fr. 22 August 2011. Archived from the original on 8 February 2014. Retrieved 19 August 2014.
  42. ^ a b "Histoire du logo Crédit Agricole". Crédit Agricole. Retrieved 19 August 2014.[permanent dead link]
  43. ^ "Credit Agricole Hit by Unauthorized N.Y. Trade". CNBC. Reuters. 19 September 2007. Retrieved 2 May 2023.
  44. ^ "Credit Agricole to raise 5.9 billion euros to shore up capital". France 24. Retrieved 20 May 2024.
  45. ^ http://www.vulpesinvest.com/ttmygh/Grant_20121008_ttmygh.pdf [dead link]
  46. ^ 3rd UPDATE: French Watchdog Fines 11 Banks For Fee Cartel [permanent dead link], Elena Bertson, Dow Jones News Wires / Wall Street Journal online, retr 2010 9 20
  47. ^ Collusion in the banking sector Archived 27 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Press Release of Autorité de la concurrence, République Française, 20 September 2010, retrv 2010 9 20
  48. ^ Sun, Mengqi. "Crédit Agricole Subsidiaries to Settle Alleged Violations of U.S. Sanctions". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 20 May 2024.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Gale Directory of Company Histories, "Credit Agricole" (2012) online
[edit]
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