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Piri Reis

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Piri Reis
Statue of Piri Reis
Born
Ahmed Muhiddin Piri

c. 1465
Gallipoli, Rumelia Eyalet, Ottoman Empire
Died1553 (aged 87–88)
Cairo, Egypt Eyalet, Ottoman Empire
Nationalityuncertaub
Known forDrawing the Piri Reis map
RelativesKemal Reis (uncle)
Bust of Piri Reis in Gallipoli
Bust of Piri Reis in Gallipoli

Ahmed Muhiddin Piri (c. 1465[1] – 1553[2]), better known as Piri Reis (Turkish: Pîrî Reis or Hacı Ahmet Muhittin Pîrî Bey), was an Ottoman navigator, geographer and cartographer. He is primarily known today for his maps and charts collected in his Kitab-ı Bahriye [tr] (Book of Navigation), a book that contains detailed information on early navigational techniques as well as relatively accurate charts for their time, describing the important ports and cities of the Mediterranean Sea.

He gained fame as a cartographer when a small part of his first world map, prepared in 1513, was discovered in 1929 at the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul. His world map is the oldest known Turkish atlas showing the New World, and one of the oldest maps of America still existing anywhere (the oldest known surviving map of America is the map drawn by Juan de la Cosa in 1500). Piri Reis's map is centered on the Sahara at the latitude of the Tropic of Cancer.[3]

In 1528, Piri Reis drew a second world map, of which a small fragment (showing Greenland and North America from Labrador and Newfoundland in the north to Florida, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica and parts of Central America in the south) still survives. According to his imprinting text, he had drawn his maps using about 20 foreign charts and mappae mundi (Arab, Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, Indian and Greek) including one by Christopher Columbus.[4] He was executed in 1553 in Cairo, having been found guilty of lifting the siege of Hormuz Island and abandoning the fleet, even though his reason for doing so was the lack of maintenance of his ships.[5]

Biography

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Early life and piracy

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Little is known about Piri Reis' background and early life.[6] He was likely born around 1470 in Gallipoli on the Dardanelles.[7] At the time, Gallipoli was a major Ottoman naval base.[8] His full name was Hacı Ahmed Muhiddin Piri. Reis was a military rank equivalent to captain, so "Piri Reis" means Captain Piri.[9] His uncle was Kemal Reis.[10] Little is known about his parents. It is not clear from historical records whether Piri was the son of Kemal Reis' brother or sister.[11] Kemal Reis had a brother-in-law from Nafpaktos who was arrested and tortured in Venice for alleged spying during the Ottoman–Venetian wars. He was possibly Piri Reis' father.[12] Piri Reis gives his father's name as Hacı Mehmed.[13]

By age 12, he began sailing with his uncle Kemal Reis.[14] Kemal was a notable corsair,[15] a type of pirate who acted with the approval of a sovereign state.[16] They sailed on raids, mainly on the coasts of Italy and Spain.[7] As a corsair, Piri Reis captured many ships, a fortress near Mallorca, and Pianosa near Corsica.[7] During the Granada War, Piri Reis transported Muslims and Jews from Spain to North Africa.[17] During the winters, they took shelter in favorable harbors on the Barbary Coast.[18] Led by Kemal Reis, the Barbary pirates threatened European maritime traffic.[19] Piri Reis wrote of his early years, "We sailed on the Mediterranean and fought the enemies of our religion mercilessly."[20]

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Venice as depicted in the Kitab-ı Bahriye

Piri Reis sailed under his uncle and later Hayreddin Barbarossa in the Ottoman Navy.[21] To bolster the empire's navy, Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II recruited Barbary and Aegean corsairs, including Piri and Kemal.[22] Before Barbarossa reorganized the navy, sultans commonly employed former pirates.[23] For most of the empire's existence, it lacked a merchant navy or a national maritime transport policy.[24] The addition of experienced corsairs raised the Ottoman Navy's competence in open-sea combat and knowledge of the Mediterranean.[25]

Kemal Reis was imprisoned on Euboea for piracy in 1495 and brouht to the capital Constantinople. Rather than being sentenced, he was given a position in the empire's navy. Piri Reis was with his uncle through this and later documented it in the Kitab-ı Bahriye.[26] Kemal and Piri advocated taking the coastal fortresses of the Peloponnese and the small but strategically valuable island of Rhodes.[27] In his Kitab-ı Bahriye, Piri Reis reports that his uncle had told Sultan Bayezid II, "Venice has two eyes: Her left eye is the [harbor] fortress of Modon. Her right eye is that of Corfu."[28]

During this period, together with his uncle, he took part in many naval wars of the Ottoman Empire against Spain, the Republic of Genoa and the Republic of Venice, including the First Battle of Lepanto (Battle of Zonchio) in 1499 and the Second Battle of Lepanto (Battle of Modon) in 1500. The Ottoman navy defeated the Venetian fleet at Morea and began to take control of the Eastern Mediterranean.[29] In one naval battle, Piri Reis and his uncle captured a Spaniard who had participated in Columbus's voyages,[30] and likely possessed an early map of the Americas that Piri Reis would use as a source for his maps.[31]

When his uncle died in a 1511 shipwreck in the Mediterranean, Piri Reis returned to Gallipoli to work on his navigational studies.[32] The finished manuscript of his first world map was dated to the month of Muharram in the Islamic year 919 AH, equivalent to 1513 AD.[33] This work included the recently explored shores of both the African and American continents.[34] Although he had never sailed the Atlantic, he compiled over twenty maps of Arab, Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, Indian and older Greek origins into a comprehensive representation of the known world of his era.[35]

By 1516, Piri Reis returned to the navy as captain of a galley in the Ottoman fleet and took part in the 1516–17 Ottoman conquest of Egypt.[7][36] He was the commander of the Turkish fleet that blockaded Alexandria.[37] After the Ottoman victory,[38] Piri Reis presented the 1513 world map to Sultan Selim I (r. 1512–1520).[39] It is unknown how Selim used the map, if at all, as it vanished from history until its rediscovery centuries later.[40] According to Venetian documents, Piri Reis was no longer with the Ottoman navy in 1518 and was engaging in piracy in the Aegean Sea.[41]

Rhodes (outlined in red) just off the southern coast of Anatolia

Piri Reis participated in the Siege of Rhodes.[42] He completed the first version of his Kitab-ı Bahriye, or "Book of the Sea", in 1521, primarily as a navigational guide,[43] but it also included advice on conquering Rhodes.[44] When Suleiman the Magnificent was enthroned, many offered exemplars of their craft as gifts to the new sultan; Piri Reis presented a copy of the Kitab-ı Bahriye to the sultan.[45] The island of Rhodes had a secure harbor and 20 km from Anatolia. Controlled by an adversary, it would threaten maritime communication between the empire's capital and its Mediterranean ports.[46] The Knights of St. John controlled the island. They frequently took Muslim captives and provided shelter to Christian pirates.[47] The Knights' fleet of just ten ships remained in the harbor rather than confront the larger Ottoman force.[48] The Ottoman Navy conducted an amphibious operation, transporting many troops to the small island.[49] The island surrendered to the Ottomans on 25 December 1522, and the Knights of St. John later relocated to Malta.[50][51]

In 1524, he captained the ship that took the Ottoman Grand Vizier Pargalı İbrahim Pasha to Egypt.[52] Suleiman's reign was the beginning of a shift towards power concentrating in a group of viziers, advisers, governors, and royal family members, including Suleiman's childhood friend Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha who rose to grand vizier of the empire.[53] When putting down Hain Ahmed Pasha's rebellion in Egypt, Ibrahim rode aboard the navy's flagship, commanded by Piri Reis.[54] Piri Reis said they discussed cartography after Ibrahim asked him about the maps and charts being consulted aboard the ship.[55] Ibrahim commissioned Piri Reis to create an expanded version of the Kitab-ı Bahriye.[56] He completed an expanded version in 1526, and in later centuries, many copies were made of both.[57] Piri Reis completed a second world map in 1528 or 1529.[58] According to Sevin Tekeli, the changes from the first world map demonstrate that Piri Reis was actively following European voyages of discovery.[59]

During the 1530s, Venice saw Piri Reis as an adversary and obstacle to their aims in the Middle East.[60] In 1532, he fought back Dalmatian pirates in the Adriatic.[61] He attacked the Venetian-held castle at Koroni in 1533, captured a Venetian galley in 1536, and then began to chase Venetian ships out of the eastern Mediterranean.[62]

Grand Admiral of the Indian Ocean Fleet

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Alexandria in Egypt as depicted in the Kitab-ı Bahriye

After Sinan Reis died in 1546,[63] Piri Reis took his position as Hind Kapudan-ı Derya, or grand admiral of the Ottoman Fleet in the Indian Ocean, as well as admiral of the fleet in Egypt.[64] Portuguese ships had raided the Red Sea as far as Suez and taken the port city of Aden in Yemen.[65] The Portuguese navy employed sailing ships capable of navigation and combat in open seas, while the Ottoman navy relied on galleys, which were more effective along the coasts. This limited Ottoman naval warfare to the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and narrow straits. The empire focused on using its navy to continue land-based expansion into new areas for tax revenue, agriculture, and manpower.[66]

Using his fleet of galleys based out of Suez, Egypt,[67][68] Piri Reis led campaigns in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.[69] On 26 February 1548, he recaptured Aden from the Portuguese.[70] Piri Reis subdued the local Bedouin rulers of Basra in 1547 and began building a Persian Gulf fleet.[71] The fleet then began annual expansions in the Indian Ocean, even as some local rulers began to ally with the Portuguese.[72]

The sultan instructed Piri Reis to take the Portuguese-controlled Hormuz Island at the mouth of the gulf in the Strait of Hormuz.[73] In the 1550s, Piri Reis and Seydi Ali Reis left Suez with 25 galleys, 5 ships, and 850 soldiers.[74] In 1552, they took Muscat after a one-month siege.[75][76] The expedition took control of coastal lands in Yemen, Oman, and Arabia.[77] The Portuguese prepared for the attack by evacuating most of the people from Hormuz. Wealthy residents took refuge on the nearby island of Qeshm, and the soldiers and royal family retreated to the fortress.[78] The Turks took the City of Hormuz, but could not take the fortress.[79] The Ottoman fleet laid siege to the island for several weeks, but retreated.[80][81] They sacked the city, looted Qeshm, and retreated into the gulf with over a million pieces of gold.[82]

Approaching the age of 90, Piri Reis was executed following his retreat at Hormuz.[83] After the expedition's failure, Kubad Pasha the governor of Basra denied Piri Reis rowers for his galleys.[84][85] He returned to Egypt in 1552 with only two ships, loaded with gold taken from Hormuz and Basra.[86][87] The following year, the sultan had him beheaded.[88] A letter—dated 15 November 1553—written from diplomats in Constantinople to Venice said that he had been "charged with having raised the siege of the fortress of Hormuz".[89]

Works

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Piri Reis map of 1513

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Main article: Piri Reis map
Surviving fragment of the first World Map of Piri Reis (1513)

The Piri Reis map of 1513 is a world map that Piri Reis compiled from a range of contemporary and classical sources.[90] Approximately one third of the map survives, housed in the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul.[91] The finished manuscript was dated to the month of Muharram in the Islamic year 919 AH, equivalent to 1513 AD.[92] Piri Reis played a role in the 1517 conquest of Egypt. After the Ottoman victory,[93] Piri Reis presented the 1513 world map to Ottoman Sultan Selim I (r. 1512–1520).[94] It is unknown how Selim used the map, if at all, as it would vanish from history until its rediscovery centuries later.[95] When rediscovered in 1929, the remaining fragment garnered international attention as it includes a partial copy of an otherwise lost map by Christopher Columbus.[96]

Side by side outlines of the map's depiction of the Caribbean and the Behaim globe's depiction of Asia's east coast show different coastlines but a similar arrangement of land masses.
Comparison of Piri Reis's Caribbean (left) to Martin Behaim's Asia (right)

The map is a portolan chart, as shown by the compass roses from which lines of bearing radiate. Designed for navigation via dead reckoning, portolan charts use a windrose network rather than a longitude and latitude grid.[97][98] It contains extensive notes primarily in Ottoman Turkish.[99] The colophon in Arabic is written in a different handwriting, likely that of Piri Reis himself.[100] The depiction of South America is detailed and accurate for its time.[101] Scholars attribute the peculiar arrangement of the Caribbean to a now-lost map from Columbus that depicted Cuba as part of the Asian mainland and Hispaniola according to Marco Polo's description of Japan.[102] The southern coast of the Atlantic Ocean is widely accepted to be a version of Terra Australis.[103]

The map is visually distinct from European portolan charts, populated by Islamic miniatures.[104] The map was unusual in the Islamic cartographic tradition for incorporating many non-Muslim sources.[105] Historian Karen Pinto has described the combination of legendary creatures from the edge of the known world with positive portrayals as challenging the medieval Islamic idea of an "inhabited quarter" of the world surrounded by an impassable Encircling Ocean.[106] Piri Reis adapted the elements of iconography from the traditional maps—which illustrated well-known routes, cities, and peoples—to the portolan portrayals of newly discovered coasts.[107]

There are conflicting interpretations of the map. Scholarly debate exists over the specific sources used in the map's creation and the number of source maps.[108] Many areas on the map have not been conclusively identified with real or mythical places.[109] Some authors have noted visual similarities to parts of the Americas not officially discovered by 1513, but there is no textual or historical evidence that the map represents land south of present-day Cananéia.[110] A disproven 20th-century hypothesis identified the southern landmass with an ice-free Antarctic coast.[111]

Kitab-ı Bahriye

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A late 16th century copy of the map of Europe from Kitab-ı Bahriye

Piri Reis is the author of the Kitab-ı Bahriye, or "Book of the Sea", one of the most famous cartographical works of the period. The book gives seafarers information on the Mediterranean coast, islands, crossings, straits, and gulfs; where to take refuge in the event of a storm, how to approach the ports, and precise routes to the ports. The work was first published in 1521, and it was revised in 1524–1525 with additional information and better-crafted charts in order to be presented as a gift to Sultan Suleiman I. The revised edition had a total of 434 pages containing 290 maps.

Map of Alanya by Piri Reis

Apart from the maps, the book also contained detailed information on the major ports, bays, gulfs, capes, peninsulas, islands, straits and ideal shelters of the Mediterranean Sea, as well as techniques of navigation and navigation-related information on astronomy, together with information about the local people of each country and city and the curious aspects of their culture.[112] [113][114]

The Kitab-ı Bahriye has two main sections, with the first section dedicated to information about the types of storms; techniques of using a compass; portolan charts with detailed information on ports and coastlines; methods of finding direction using the stars; and characteristics of the major oceans and the lands around them. Special emphasis is given to the discoveries in the New World by Christopher Columbus and those of Vasco da Gama and the other Portuguese seamen on their way to India, and the rest of Asia.

The second section is entirely composed of portolan charts and cruise guides. Each topic contains the map of an island or coastline. In the first book (1521), this section has a total of 132 portolan charts, while the second book (1525) has a total of 210 portolan charts. The second section starts with the description of the Dardanelles Strait and continues with the islands and coastlines of the Aegean Sea, Ionian Sea, Adriatic Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, Ligurian Sea, the French Riviera, the Balearic Islands, the coasts of Spain, the Strait of Gibraltar, the Canary Islands, the coasts of North Africa, Egypt and the River Nile, the Levant and the coastline of Anatolia. This section also includes descriptions and drawings of the famous monuments and buildings in every city, as well as biographic information about Piri Reis who also explains the reasons why he preferred to collect these charts in a book instead of drawing a single map, which would not be able to contain so much information and detail.

A century after Piri's death and during the second half of the 17th century, a third version of his book was produced, which left the text of the second version unaffected while enriching the cartographical part of the manuscript. It included additional new large-scale maps, mostly copies of the Italian (from Battista Agnese and Jacopo Gastaldi) and Dutch (Abraham Ortelius) works of the previous century. These maps were much more accurate and depict the Black Sea, which was not included in the original.[115]

Manuscripts

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Copies of the Kitab-ı Bahriye are found in various libraries in Istanbul and in some of the major libraries in Europe, besides one copy known to be held privately in the USA (Walters Art Museum).

Copies of the first edition (1521):

Copies of the second edition (1525):

  • Istanbul, Topkapı Palace, ms. Hazine 642.
  • Istanbul, Köprülü Library, ms. 171.
  • Istanbul, Süleymaniye Library, ms Aya Sofya 3161.
  • Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, suppl. Turc 956.

1528 world map

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Surviving fragment of the second World Map of Piri Reis (1528)

Piri Reis compiled a second world map in 1528.[116] Only a fragment of the map—the northwest corner—remains.[117] The parchment fragment is approximately 70 centimeters square.[118] As with the 1513 map, the 1528 map has calligraphic inscriptions in Ottoman-Turkish written in the Arabic alphabet. The colophon is in Arabic, likely handwritten by Piri Reis himself.[119] According to the colophon, Piri Reis compiled the map in 1528 in Gallipoli.[120] However, he may not have completed it until 1529.[121]

The 1528 map was a portolan chart like his earlier works. It uses a windrose network radiating out from compass roses.[122] The map includes one line of latitude, the Tropic of Cancer; it is about ten degrees south of the correct position for Cuba and the Yucatan.[123] The map uses standard portolan colors and symbols. Dots indicate shallow waters and shoals. Crosses indicate rocks and reefs.[124] The miniatures painted on the map depict two caravels and a carrack.[125] The scale bars indicate 50 miles between the sections of the scales.[126]

Based on the design of recently discovered geographical features like Greenland, Newfoundland, and Florida, the map likely relied on Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian maps from the 1520s.[127] Notes on the map cite recent Portuguese voyages to Labrador and Newfoundland.[128] Hispaniola and Cuba are much more accurate compared to the 1513 world map. Cuba, labeled "Isla di Vana", is now correctly positioned as an island in the Caribbean.[129] In contrast to the 1513 map, Piri Reis leaves areas that have not been explored blank.[130] Only the explored southern coasts of the Florida peninsula are on the map. The geography of Florida is left ambiguous as potentially an island or peninsula.[131] The Spanish Empire's master map, the Padrón Real, included this type of ambiguous Florida until 1520, and it influenced Italian cartography like the Freducci map.[132]

Legacy

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Bust of Piri Reis in the Istanbul Naval Museum

Piri Reis is mentioned in the 2010 video game Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood, and appears as a character in its 2011 sequel Assassin's Creed: Revelations.[133] In Brotherhood, a group of Italian Assassins sent from Rome to Constantinople by Ezio Auditore da Firenze infiltrates Piri Reis's shop to steal some of his maps detailing the New World, in order to match the Templars' expansion into the new lands. By Revelations, despite his earlier conflict with the Assassins, Piri joins the Ottoman Assassin Brotherhood in 1506 to serve as a scholar and technician, and even eventually progresses to the rank of Master Assassin.

In the 2021 Turkish TV series Barbaros: Sword of the Mediterranean, he is portrayed by actor Emir Benderlioğlu.

Several warships and submarines of the Turkish Navy have been named after Piri Reis.

References

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  2. ^ Arikan, Muzaffer; Toledo, Paulino. "VENEDİK'TEKİ PAPALIK SEFARETİ BELGELERİNE GÖRE TÜRKLER" (PDF). Ankara University (in Turkish).
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  4. ^ Brotton 1998, p. 108.
  5. ^ Çal, İsmail (21 October 2010). "Piri Reis neden idam edildi?". Dünya Bülteni. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 22 November 2015.
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  7. ^ a b c d Bostan 2014.
  8. ^ Soucek 1992, p. 266.
  9. ^ Brotton 1998, p. 193.
  10. ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 5.
  11. ^ Pedani 2015, p. 320.
  12. ^ Pedani 2015, p. 321.
  13. ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 5.
  14. ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 5.
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  50. ^ "The Order of St John's arrival in Malta in 1530". Times of Malta. 24 October 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2024.
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  56. ^ Casale 2019, p. 37.
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  67. ^ İnan 1954, p. 15.
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  72. ^ Shaw 1976, pp. 106–107.
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  77. ^ Malekandathil 2010, p. 117.
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  94. ^ Kahle 1933, p. 621.
  95. ^ Soucek 1992, p. 270.
  96. ^ Adıvar 1939, pp. 59–60, cited in Şengör 2004.
  97. ^ Dutch 2010.
  98. ^ Mesenburg 2001, pp. 3, 7.
  99. ^ McIntosh 2000b.
  100. ^ Kahle 1933, p. 621.
  101. ^ Soucek 1996, pp. 58, 73–74.
  102. ^ Gaspar 2015.
  103. ^ Cuoghi 2002.
  104. ^ Pinto 2012, pp. 90–94.
  105. ^ Soucek 1994, p. 123.
  106. ^ Pinto 2012, p. 80.
  107. ^ Pinto 2012.
  108. ^ McIntosh 2000a, ch. 2.
  109. ^ McIntosh 2000a, ch. 3.
  110. ^ McIntosh 2000a, ch. 5.
  111. ^ McIntosh 2000a, ch. 6.
  112. ^ Brotton 1998, p. 110.
  113. ^ Robinson 1998, p. 70.
  114. ^ Irzik & Güzeldere 2005, p. 286.
  115. ^ Loupis 2004.
  116. ^ McIntosh 2015, p. 303.
  117. ^ McIntosh 2015, p. 303.
  118. ^ McIntosh 2015, p. 303.
  119. ^ McIntosh 2015, p. 306.
  120. ^ McIntosh 2015.
  121. ^ McIntosh 2015, pp. 303, 315.
  122. ^ McIntosh 2015, p. 305.
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  124. ^ McIntosh 2015, p. 305.
  125. ^ McIntosh 2015, p. 306.
  126. ^ İnan 1954, p. 45.
  127. ^ McIntosh 2015, p. 303.
  128. ^ İnan 1954, pp. 43–45.
  129. ^ Tekeli 1985, p. 681
  130. ^ İnan 1954, p. 48.
  131. ^ McIntosh 2015, pp. 307–308.
  132. ^ McIntosh 2015, pp. 308–309.
  133. ^ Ritman, Alex (14 November 2011). "Assassin's Creed: Revelations is historically impressive". The National. Retrieved 29 April 2018.

Bibliography

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Further reading

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Piri Reis.

Editions of Kitab-ı Bahriye

  • Kahle, Paul, ed. (1926). Piri Re'îs. Bahrîje. Das türkische Segelhandbuch für das Mittelländische Meer vom Jahre 1521 (in German). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co.
  • Kordoglu, Fevzi; Alpagot, Haydar; Pekol, Fehmi, eds. (1935). Piri Reis Kitabi Bahriye: eser ve yazean hakkinda bir onsozle bir endeks katilmistir [Piri Reis Kitab-ı Bahriye: with added foreword and index] (in Turkish). Vol. 2. Istanbul: Turk Tarihi Arastirma Korumu.
  • Oktel, Ertugrul Zekai, ed. (1988). Piri Reis. Kitab-ı Bahriye. Istanbul: The Historical research foundation.
  • Arī, Bülent, ed. (2002). Piri Reis. Kitab-ı Bahriye (in Turkish and English). Translated by Demir, Ahmet; Özden, Ercüment. Ankara: Republic of Turkey, Prime Ministry, Undersecretaryship of Navigation. ISBN 9755070966. OCLC 978146815.

Other links:

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