Svayamvara

"Swayamvar" redirects here. For the reality television show, see Swayamvar (TV series).

For the films, see Swayamvara (1973 film) and Swayamvara (2010 film).

The Svayamvara ceremony of Damayantī, illustration by Warwick Goble, 1913

Svayamvara (Sanskrit: स्वयंवर, romanized: svayaṃvara lit. 'self-choice') is a distinctive matrimonial tradition in ancient Indian society where a bride, usually from Kshatriya caste, selects her husband from a group of assembled suitors either by a public contest between her suitors or her own will. This practice is mainly featured in the two major Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa, though its prevalence and portrayal vary significantly between them.

Prevelance of Svayamvara during the Vedic period is unclear and a subject of scholarly debate. Few scholars suggest that it emerged from the Gandharva tradition, diverging from more ritualistic and arranged forms of marriage. Others suggest that Svayamvara developed as a narrative device within the epics to highlight the heroism and valor of protagonists, aligning with the Kshatriya ethos of competition and martial prowess.

Despite being closely associated with the epics, Svayamvara is not recognised as a form of marriage in the Dharmaśāstra and the actual frequency and details of Svayamvara are fewer.

Origins and development

The origins of the svayamvara are somewhat ambiguous, with scholarly debates suggesting multiple influences. J.L. Brockington and other scholars have traced the svayamvara to early Vedic traditions, possibly emerging from the Gandharva form of marriage. The Gandharva marriage, which was based on mutual consent and romantic choice, might have provided the conceptual foundation for the svayamvara. This contrasts with other forms of marriage prevalent in ancient India, such as Arranged Marriage (saṃāgāmi) or Sacrificial Marriage (sārdha). However, as the tradition evolved, it became more structured and formalized, aligning with the societal values of the Kshatriya class​.

Heramba Chatterjee posits that the svayamvara may have initially been closely related to the Gandharva form, where the bride and groom chose each other based on mutual attraction and affection, often without the involvement of their families. Over time, however, the svayamvara took on a more competitive nature, reflecting the martial values of the Kshatriya class, where the bride's choice was often influenced by a contest of skill or valor among suitor. Others suggest that Svayamvara developed as a narrative device within the epics to highlight the heroism and valor of protagonists, aligning with the Kshatriya ethos of competition and martial prowess.

In the epic narratives of the Mahabharata and Ramayana, svayamvara served as a significant cultural and narrative device. The term Svayamvara appears 52 times in the Mahābhārata and only 6 times in the Rāmāyaṇa. However, it is important to note that the term itself is absent in several notable instances, such as the Svayamvara of Sāvitrī. This suggests that while the concept of Svayamvara is significant, it is not as central or frequently mentioned as one might expect. Furthermore, the initiative in these marriages typically lies with the father of the bride, rather than the bride herself, contrary to the literal meaning of the term.

In the Mahabharata, svayamvaras are depicted as contests where suitors demonstrate their valor, aligning with the Kshatriya ideals of heroism. Draupadi’s svayamvara is a prime example, where Arjuna, disguised as a brahmin, wins her hand through an extraordinary display of archery skill. This event underscores the importance of physical prowess and the competitive spirit that defines Kshatriya society. In contrast, the Ramayana’s portrayal of svayamvara, particularly in the case of Sita, shifts towards a more dharmic and moral framework. Although Sita’s marriage is later referred to as a svayamvara, the earlier narrative describes it as "viryashulka," or the prize of heroism. This distinction highlights the differing emphases in the two epics: the Ramayana's focus on dharma and divine will contrasts with the Mahabharata’s glorification of human heroism.

The svayamvara does not appear in the traditional listings of marriage types in the Dharmashastras, such as the Manusmriti, where eight forms of marriage are recognized. This absence suggests that svayamvara was not considered a formalized or ritualistic form of marriage within orthodox Brahmanical law. Scholars propose that it may have been a later addition to the recognized forms of marriage, reflecting less formalized traditions. The Manusmriti, however, does permit a woman to choose her husband if her father fails to arrange a marriage within a set period after puberty, though this is presented as a fallback rather than an ideal.

The concept of svayamvara continued to evolve in later Indian literature, often emphasizing the bride’s autonomy or divine intervention. Stories like that of Damayanti, who organizes a second svayamvara to reunite with her lost husband Nala, illustrate a shift towards individual agency and romantic ideals. These later narratives reflect the ongoing cultural significance of svayamvara, not only as a literary motif but also as a symbol of the complex interplay between personal choice and social expectations in marriage.

Types

According scholar Vettam Mani, the scripture Devi Bhagavata Purana classifies Svayamvara into three types:

• The first, Icchā Svayamvara, allowed the bride complete freedom to choose her husband based on her preference. It involved an assembly at which the bride-to-be simply chooses between her suitors, with Damayantī’s Svayamvara being a prime example.

• The second type, Savyavasthā Svayamvara, required the suitor to meet specific qualifications, such as Rāma drawing the bow of Śiva to win Sītā.

• The third type, Śauryaśulka or Vīryaśulkā Svayaṃvara, involved a contest or challenge for the bride’s hand, exemplified by Arjuna’s marriage to Draupadī.

Scholars tend to classify Svayamvara into two broad categories — Vīryaśulkā (includes Sītā's Svayamvara as well) and Icchā (or simply called Svyaṃvara).

Syavamvara in the Ṛg Veda

The concept of svayaṃvara is widely recognized in later Indian literature, particularly in the epics like the Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa. However, its origins and presence in the Ṛg Veda are subjects of scholarly debate.

The Ṛg Veda, being one of the oldest and most enigmatic texts in Indian literature, provides limited direct evidence for svayaṃvara. Scholar Stephanie W. Jamison suggests that the Ṛg Veda contains indirect references to svayaṃvara through specific words and phrases that indicate the presence of this institution. One of the key terms she discusses is "vrá-", which she proposes might be a syncopated form of a feminine noun corresponding to the masculine "varū-", meaning "suitor" or "chooser." This term could refer to a "female chooser," implying a woman who selects her husband, which aligns with the concept of svayaṃvara.

For example, Jamison analyzes the phrase "svayaṃ sā varūte" (she chooses for herself) as a possible underlying expression in the Ṛg Veda. Although this formula does not appear overtly in the text, Jamison argues that it might exist in a more subtle, encoded form, suggesting that the concept of a maiden choosing her own husband was known in Vedic society.

The Marriage of Sūryā

One of the most compelling pieces of evidence for the svayaṃvara in the Ṛg Veda is found in the marriage of Sūryā, the daughter of the Sun. This myth, which is prominently featured in the Ṛg Vedic marriage hymn (X.85), serves as a divine model for human marriage and is often interpreted as reflecting a svayaṃvara scenario. In this hymn, Sūryā is depicted as choosing her husband from among the gods, with the twin Aśvins being her primary suitors. Jamison points out that the repeated references to Sūryā's choice, the involvement of the Aśvins, and the emphasis on the chariot (a key element in the wedding) suggest a ritualized form of svayaṃvara. She also notes that the Ṛg Veda uses the verb "vṛṇīta" (chooses) in contexts that imply a maiden’s active selection of her husband, further supporting the idea of svayaṃvara.

The Ṛg Vedic poets often engage in formulaic play and metonymy, where different elements are substituted within a familiar formula. For example, in some hymns, the "chariot" of the Aśvins is chosen instead of the suitors themselves, indicating the close association between the vehicle and the husband in the wedding ritual. This kind of metonymic substitution suggests that the concept of choice (central to svayaṃvara) was so embedded in the culture that it could be creatively manipulated by the poets.

Scholarly Interpretations and Debates

Some scholars argue that the evidence is too indirect and that the Ṛg Veda does not provide a clear picture of the svayaṃvara as an established institution. For instance, Hanns-Peter Schmidt, in his work on women’s rites in the Veda, acknowledges the presence of certain features reminiscent of svayaṃvara in the Sūryā myth but cautions against drawing too strong a conclusion about its prevalence in Vedic society. Schmidt points out that since the Ṛg Vedic references are largely mythological and symbolic, they cannot be taken as straightforward evidence for human practices. He suggests that the Ṛg Vedic poets may have been more concerned with cosmic and symbolic themes than with depicting real social institutions.

Jamision however argues that, stating that the passage mentions that the wedding of Sarañyu, mentioned in Rigveda 10.17.1, is a clear example of svayamvara.

Svayamvara in the Mahābhārata

The Mahābhārata, with its extensive narrative scope, features numerous instances of Svayamvara, predominantly associated with female protagonists of noble lineage. The practice is depicted as a Kshatriya tradition, emphasizing valor and competition among suitors. Svayamvara appears approximately 23 times in the Ādiparvan (the first book of the Mahābhārata), 15 times in the Vanaparvan, 6 times in the Udyogaparvan, 3 times in the Dronaparvan, 2 times in the Sāntiparvan, and 1 time each in the Sabha, Bhīṣmaparvan, and Anusāsanaparvans.

Draupadī’s Svayamvara

a 1920s artist's interpretation of Draupadi's svayamvara

Draupadī’s Svayamvara is the most famous instance in the Mahābhārata. It is a Vīryaśulkā Svayaṃvara. Textual references in the Mahābhārata provide a detailed account of this event. The Ādiparvan describes the preparation for the Svayamvara, the gathering of suitors, and the specific details of the contest (Mbh. 1.174-185). Draupadī herself refers to the event in later parts of the epic, indicating its lasting importance in her life and the broader story (Mbh. 2.62.4a).

Draupadī, also known as Kṛṣṇā, is the daughter of King Drupada of Pāñcāla. King Drupada organizes a Svayamvara to find a suitable husband for his daughter. King Drupada sets up a rigorous contest to determine Draupadī’s future husband. The central challenge involves a massive bow that must be strung and used to shoot an arrow at a revolving target while looking at its reflection in water kept beneath—a task requiring extraordinary strength, precision, and focus. The event attracts princes and warriors from across the land, including the Kauravas, Karṇa, and the Pandavas (who are in disguise). Among the competitors, Karṇa, known for his unmatched archery skills, steps forward to attempt the challenge. However, Draupadī, who is granted a degree of choice in the matter, rejects Karṇa, citing his low birth as a Suta, though this scene is not universally agreed upon in various recensions of the text. There are variations regarding Karṇa's participation; many renditions of the text describe him failing to string the bow by the "breadth of a hair".

An illustration depicting Draupadi placing the ceremonial garland around her suitor's neck.

Arjuna, disguised as a Brahmin (priest caste), then takes up the challenge. Despite his incognito appearance, Arjuna's inherent skill and divine favor enable him to accomplish the task with ease. He successfully strings the bow and hits the target, winning Draupadī's hand in marriage. The victory of Arjuna, a Kshatriya warrior disguised as a Brahmin, sparks outrage among the other suitors, particularly the Kauravas and Karṇa. Upon returning to their mother Kuntī with Draupadī, Arjuna and his brothers inadvertently place her in a situation where she becomes the common wife of all five Pandavas. This unusual marital arrangement, while rooted in a misunderstanding, is sanctioned by divine and scriptural reasoning within the epic. Draupadī’s marriage to the Pandavas is not only integral to the plot but also symbolizes unity and shared responsibility among the brothers.

The significance of Draupadī’s svayaṃvara extends far beyond the mere act of marriage. It acts as a pivotal catalyst for the myriad conflicts that propel the Mahābhārata's narrative. This event intensifies the resentment of the Kauravas and Karṇa towards the Pandavas, laying the groundwork for the rivalry that ultimately leads to the great Kurukṣetra war. Moreover, Draupadī’s svayaṃvara underscores profound themes of fate, dharma, and divine intervention in human affairs. Her marriage to the Pandavas is not just a personal union but a fulfillment of a destiny intricately shaped by her past life and divine will. The svayaṃvara also varies significantly across different recensions, reflecting the influence of local cultural contexts and the specific narrative priorities of diverse communities. For instance, some South Indian versions might place greater emphasis on divine intervention and Krishna's role, whereas northern recensions may highlight different aspects. In certain versions, the focus might be on Draupadī’s autonomy and the implications of her marriage to the five Pandavas, while others might concentrate on the political ramifications of the svayaṃvara, especially in relation to the Kauravas..

Scholars like J.L. Brockington and V.S. Sukthankar emphasize that Draupadī's svayaṃvara is a quintessential example of the Kṣatriya ideal of heroism and valor. The contest where Arjuna wins Draupadī’s hand by hitting a target reflects the epic’s emphasis on martial prowess. Alf Hiltebeitel highlights the mythological and ritual symbolism of Draupadī’s svayaṃvara, interpreting it as a key event that reinforces Draupadī’s central role in the cosmic and dharmic order of the epic. M.J. Kashalikar adds that different cultural and religious retellings, such as Jain texts, portray the svayaṃvara with variations, reflecting diverse interpretations of her role. V.S. Sukthankar notes that few aspects of Draupadī’s svayaṃvara, although potentially a later addition, is structurally essential to the epic, setting the stage for the conflicts and alliances that drive the narrative.

Damayantī’s Svayamvara

An illustration from Razmnama by Tulsi Kalan depicting the marriage ceremony of Damayanti, c. 1590 CE

Damayantī’s Svayamvara is another notable matrimonial event in the Mahābhārata. Her story is distinct within the epic because it involves not just one, but two Svayamvaras, illustating that Svayamvaras could be held more than one time for a bride. Textual references in the Mahābhārata provide a detailed account of Damayantī’s Svayamvara. The episodes involving her first Svayamvara, her interactions with the gods, and her recognition of Nala are found in the Vana Parva (Mbh. 3.51-62), while the second Svayamvara and her reunion with Nala are described in the later sections of the same parva (Mbh. 3.68-72).

The first Svayamvara of Damayantī is organized by her father, King Bhīma, after he becomes aware of her deep affection for Nala, the king of Nishadha. Damayantī, having heard of Nala's virtues and character through messengers, falls in love with him even before meeting him. Nala, equally enchanted by the descriptions of Damayantī, also desires to marry her. King Bhīma invites kings and princes from across the land to participate in the Svayamvara. Among the suitors are not only human princes but also several gods who have disguised themselves as Nala to win Damayantī’s hand. The gods include Indra, Agni, Varuṇa, and Yama, who, despite their divine status, are unable to sway Damayantī’s heart away from Nala. When the time comes for her to make her choice, Damayantī, guided by her unwavering love, identifies Nala among the disguised gods. Her devotion is so strong that even the gods, recognizing her steadfast love and purity, bless the union instead of opposing it. Thus, Damayantī chooses Nala as her husband.

The second Svayamvara occurs under much different circumstances and is unique in the epic's context. After a series of misfortunes that lead Nala to abandon Damayantī, she is left heartbroken and alone. Believing Nala to be dead, and faced with the prospect of life without him, Damayantī decides to organize another Svayamvara. However, this time, the purpose is not merely to find a new husband but to uncover whether Nala is still alive. The conditions she sets for this Svayamvara are such that only Nala, disguised as Bahuka, can fulfill them. During the event, Damayantī recognizes Nala despite his disguise, and it restores their marriage and reaffirms their bond.

Pahari painting illustrating the Nala Damayanti theme from the Mahabharata, 18th century

Damayantī’s svayaṃvara is significant for several reasons. It is one of the rare instances in the Mahābhārata where the bride’s personal choice is crucial to the marriage. Unlike other svayaṃvaras that emphasize the suitors' valor or the father's decision, Damayantī’s choice is driven by love and personal conviction, aligning closely with the Gandharva form of marriage based on mutual consent and affection. Secondly, the involvement of the gods in her first Svayamvara underscores the theme of divine intervention in human affairs, a common motif in the Mahābhārata. Thirdly, the second Svayamvara demonstrates Damayantī's resourcefulness and determination. Faced with the possibility of losing her husband forever, she takes active steps to uncover the truth and restore her marriage, showing both agency and resilience. This second Svayamvara also adds depth to her character, portraying her not just as a passive recipient of fate but as an individual capable of shaping her destiny..

Scholars describe it as a svayaṃvara true to its literal meaning, where the bride enjoys full autonomy without paternal influence. They have noted that Damayantī’s svayaṃvara exemplifies this ideal, with Thomas Parkhill discussing its romanticized narrative. Parkhill highlights that Damayantī’s love for Nala, established before the svayaṃvara through hearsay, introduces a personal and emotional dimension, shifting from traditional heroic ideals to a more individualistic and romantic view. Brockington views this svayaṃvara as a transitional phase in the portrayal of svayaṃvaras, contrasting with Draupadī’s focus on martial prowess. John Brockington (distinct from J.L. Brockington) places Damayantī’s svayaṃvara within the broader context of Indian cultural and literary traditions, emphasizing how it showcases a unique example of female autonomy within the epic tradition.

Svayamvara of princesses of Kāśī

The narrative of the Kāśī princesses—Ambā, Ambikā, and Ambālikā—particularly appears in the Ādiparvan (Book of Beginnings) and the Udyogaparvan (Book of Effort). The Kāśī princesses are expected to choose their husbands in their joint ceremony. Bhīṣma, the grand-uncle of the Kuru princes, attends the svayaṃvara on behalf of his younger brother Vicitravīrya, who is too young and inexperienced to win a bride in combat. At the svayaṃvara, Bhīṣma overpowers all the suitors and forcibly takes the three princesses back to Hastināpura. This action aligns with the rākṣasa form of marriage, where a bride is taken by force after defeating her other suitors. Upon their return, Ambā, the eldest sister, reveals that she was already in love with Śālva, the king of Saubha, and had intended to marry him. Hearing this, Bhīṣma, adhering to his vow of celibacy, allows Ambā to go to Śālva. However, when Ambā reaches Śālva, he rejects her, citing his dishonor in being defeated by Bhīṣma. Left without a place or purpose, Ambā returns to Hastināpura, only to be refused by Bhīṣma, who tells her that she cannot marry Vicitravīrya after having declared her love for another man. This event leads Amba to vow revenge against Bhīṣma, which becomes a significant subplot in the Mahābhārata.

The svayaṃvaras of the Kāśī princesses, particularly Ambā, are pivotal in the Mahābhārata. Ambā's confusion about whether her svayaṃvara was meant for free choice or as a contest of strength leads to her later resentment and tragic conflict with Bhīṣma. Unlike Ambikā and Ambalikā, who do not object to marrying Bhīṣma's brother, Vichitravīrya, Ambā voices her objections only after reaching Bhīṣma's home. This discrepancy turns the svayaṃvara into a focal point for assigning blame, with Amba grappling with responsibility—whether it lies with herself, her father, Bhīṣma, or Śālva. The text suggests that the failed expectations of the svayaṃvara and Śālva’s inability to win play significant roles in Amba’s misfortune, highlighting the limited autonomy of the princesses, who are portrayed as passive in their destinies.

Scholarly assessments, such as those by J.L. Brockington, characterize this event as a violent assertion of power rather than a genuine svayaṃvara where the bride has true choice. Bhīṣma’s actions disrupt the conventional contest among suitors, reflecting a shift from the ideal of choice. Hans van Buitenen notes that epics often depict svayaṃvaras as platforms to showcase male heroism rather than providing true agency to women. Bhīṣma justifies his actions by prioritizing the Kṣatriya right to seize brides by force over the svayaṃvara’s intended purpose. This reflects the tension between dharma and heroic ideals, with Bhīṣma’s actions having significant consequences for Amba, who later seeks revenge and becomes Śikhaṇḍī, playing a crucial role in Bhīṣma's death. Scholars like M.J. Kashalikar and Heramba Chatterjee discuss how Amba’s story illustrates the limitations of women’s agency and the tragic outcomes of male-dominated decisions, while Vanita Ruth emphasizes how women were often treated as prizes in political and familial strategies.

Other instances

Several other instances of Svayamvara are attested in the Mahābhārata, including that of Kuntī (who chooses Paṇdu out of a group of suitors), Mādhavī (who rejects everyone at the svayamvara and retreats to forest after embracing ascetism), Devakī, Devikā, Vijayā, Valandharā and the daughters of King of Gandhāra.

Another prominent instance of Svayamvara is that of the daughter of Citrāngada, the king of Kaliṅga, in which Duryodhana—the antagonist of the epic—particapes. In this narrative, the princess of Kalinga exercises her right to reject a suitor, Duryodhana, by walking past him, signaling her lack of interest. However, Duryodhana, the eldest of the Kauravas and a figure known for his pride and determination, does not accept this rejection. In defiance of the princess’s choice, Duryodhana, with the assistance of his close ally Karṇa, forcefully abducts her. This act is significant as it is the only case in the Mahābhārata where a bride being carried off explicitly against her will.

According to some academics, although not explicitly termed as Svayamvara, the narrative of Sāvitrī's marriage closely aligns with its principles. They discusses the svayaṁvara of Sāvitrī as a unique instance where the princess has absolute freedom to choose her husband. Sāvitrī travels alone in search of a suitable match, which is unusual given the strict societal norms for women. This svayaṁvara is seen as an early and exceptional form, possibly reflecting an older tradition of more genuine female autonomy in marriage choices. This episode reflects the Dharmaśāstra influence, where Svayamvara becomes a regulated means to ensure matrimonial compliance, diverging from the valor-centric Kshatriya tradition.

Svayamvara in the Rāmāyaṇa

In contrast to the Mahābhārata, Svayamvara in the Rāmāyaṇa is less frequent and more focused on the protagonist, Rāma’s marriage to Sītā. Scholars like J.L. Brockington see the Rāmāyaṇa’s portrayal of svayamvaras, particularly Sītā’s, as part of the epic’s shift towards a more romantic and dharmic interpretation of marriage. The Rāmāyaṇa emphasizes the moral and divine aspects of marriage, contrasting with the more martial and heroic portrayal in the Mahābhārata.

Rama breaks Shiva's bow at Sita's svayamvara, a scene from the Ramayana painted by Raja Ravi Varma

Sītā’s Svayamvara

Main article: Sita Swayamvara

Sītā’s Svayamvara is a critical event in the Rāmāyaṇa, narrated in the Ayodhyākāṇḍa of the text. Organized by King Janaka of Mithilā, the Svayamvara was designed to find a suitable husband for Sītā, Janaka's daughter, who was renowned for her beauty, virtue, and divine origin. The challenge set for the suitors was to string and break a colossal bow, Pināka, which had once belonged to Lord Śiva. This bow was so formidable that none of the assembled princes and warriors from various kingdoms could even lift it, let alone string and break it.

The arrival of Rāma, the prince of Ayodhyā, at the Svayamvara marked a turning point in the event. Accompanied by his brother Lakṣmaṇa and the sage Viśvāmitra, Rāma stepped forward at Viśvāmitra’s encouragement. To the astonishment of everyone present, Rāma effortlessly lifted the bow, strung it, and broke it in half, thereby winning Sītā's hand in marriage. This act was not only a demonstration of Rāma’s physical strength but also a clear indication of his divine favor and destiny as the upholder of dharma. Following Rāma’s success, King Janaka was overjoyed and immediately offered Sītā to Rāma. However, Rāma, in adherence to the cultural norms of the time, sought the permission of his father, King Daśaratha of Ayodhyā, before accepting Sītā as his wife. Once Daśaratha gave his consent, the marriage was arranged with great ceremony, marking the union of two of the most revered figures in Hindu tradition.

The Svayamvara of Sītā holds significant importance in the Rāmāyaṇa for several reasons. Firstly, it highlights Rāma’s role as a divinely ordained hero, whose actions are guided by higher powers. His victory in the contest is portrayed as not just a feat of strength but as a fulfillment of his destiny. Secondly, the event reinforces the cultural values of the time, particularly the emphasis on strength and valor in choosing a husband, as well as the father’s role in arranging marriages. The bow of Śiva, central to the contest, symbolizes the weight of dharma, which Rāma, as an avatar of Vishnu, is destined to uphold. Textual references from the Rāmāyaṇa underscore the significance of this event. Sītā, when recounting her marriage to Anasūyā later in the epic, refers to it as a Svayamvara, emphasizing the traditional elements of choice and valor that defined the event (Rām. 2.110.47-52). Additionally, the description of the bow and the challenge it posed is detailed in the Bālakāṇḍa of the Rāmāyaṇa, where Janaka explicitly states that Sītā will marry only the man who can string the bow (Rām. 1.65-70).

Scholars note that the account of Sītā’s svayaṃvara is presented differently in various parts of the Rāmāyaṇa, leading to inconsistencies. Specifically, Robert Goldman points out that while Sītā herself refers to her marriage as a svayaṃvara in the Ayodhyākāṇḍa, the earlier Bālakāṇḍa presents the event with different details, with the Bālakāṇḍa focusing more on the heroic aspect of the contest and the Ayodhyākāṇḍa presenting a more romanticized and dhārmic version of the events. The word svayaṃvara is never used in the Bālakāṇḍa; instead, the term "vīryaśulka" (prize of heroism) is repeatedly used to describe Sītā. This term contrasts with Sītā’s later description of her marriage as a svayaṃvara in the Ayodhyākāṇḍa, where the emphasis is on her being given away by her father, Janaka. Goldman argues that Sītā's recounting in the Ayodhyākāṇḍa does not align perfectly with the events as they are narrated in the Bālakāṇḍa, indicating that the Rāmāyaṇa may have undergone textual evolution, with later additions or modifications affecting the consistency of the narrative.

Other instances

Another instance is the svayaṃvara of the daughters of King Kuśanābha, mentioned in the Balakāṇḍa of the Rāmāyaṇa. When approached by the god Vāyu, the daughters refuse his advances, stating that their father will arrange their svayaṃvara. This episode emphasizes the father's role in deciding marriage, with the daughters showing obedience to patriarchal norms. This svayaṃvara does not actually result in a contest but underscores the theme of parental control over marriage choices, contrasting with the supposed freedom of choice implied in the svayaṃvara tradition.

In the same section, the Rāmāyaṇa tells the tale of Somadā, a Gandharvī who persuades the sage Cūlina to marry her. While not a svayaṃvara in the traditional sense, this story reflects a different form of marriage, where the woman takes the initiative, showing a variation on the theme of marriage choice.

Svayamvara in Dharmashāstras and other Smṛti literature

J.L. Brockington notes that svayamvara is conspicuously absent from the traditional lists of eight marriage types in the Dharmashāstras, such as the Manusmṛti, though a version of it is described in the texts. Brockington also comments that absence of Svayamvara in the list has led to the classification of it as the ninth form of marriage. P.V. Kane and Heramba Chatterjee suggest that the svayaṁvara may have been a later addition to the canon of marriage practices, possibly arising from less formalized traditions like the Gāndharva marriage, a form of marriage recognized in Smṛti literature that is based on mutual consent and affection.

Ludwik Sternbach explains that the ordinary svayaṁvara in Smṛti literature is not a formalized or celebrated event as seen in epics but rather a legal provision that grants a maiden the right to choose her husband under specific circumstances. distinguishing it from the more celebrated and dramatic svayaṁvaras depicted in ancient Indian epics. Sternbach identifies an "ordinary svayaṁvara" within the Smṛti texts, which is not a grand public event but rather a legal provision that allows a maiden the right to choose her husband if her father or guardian fails to arrange her marriage within a specified period after she reaches puberty. This period, as outlined in various Smṛtis such as the Manusmṛti and Yājñavalkya Smṛti, is generally three years or three menstrual cycles. Sternbach explains that this provision underscores the practical concerns of ensuring timely marriages and the importance of procreation in ancient Indian society, which viewed remaining unmarried as socially and religiously undesirable.

In terms of conditions and restrictions, Sternbach notes that while the ordinary svayaṁvara grants the maiden some autonomy, her choice is still governed by societal expectations. The Smṛtis require that the chosen husband be of equal caste and rank, blameless in character, and suitable in terms of family background, age, health, and other qualities. This ensures that even though the woman is exercising her right to choose, her choice aligns with and reinforces the established social hierarchy. The ordinary svayaṁvara thus serves as a corrective measure, allowing a woman to marry if her guardian fails in his duties, but still within a controlled framework that upholds social order.

Sternbach also draws a connection between the ordinary svayaṁvara and the Gāndharva vivāha. He suggests that the ordinary svayaṁvara is closely linked to this concept, reflecting similar values of personal choice and agency. However, the Smṛtis emphasize that this autonomy is exercised within limits, ensuring that the marriage conforms to societal norms. Sternbach further discusses how the Smṛtis provide practical guidelines on how a woman should proceed with her choice if she finds herself in this situation, including instructions on approaching the desired man and maintaining propriety throughout the process.

Similar Practices

Kitayun

The Shahnama of Ferdausi records a similar tradition in pre-Islamic Iran, of one Kitayun, eldest daughter of the Emperor of Constantinople, selecting the Iranian Gushtasp. With a view to procure a husband for one of his daughters, the Byzantine emperor determined to hold a grand assembly of illustrious and wise men for her to see and select from. She did not find a suitable husband in the first assembly, so a second one was held, where she placed the crown on Gushtasp's head. Gushtasp, also known as Vishtaspa, returned to Iran with his bride and was crowned King.

As per the custom of Rum, when a princess reached marriageable age, all the princes and nobles would gather in a hall where the princess would enter with her handmaidens and would select one of the princes to be her husband.

Rum (literally "Rome") was the common name used for the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire by Middle Eastern people.

See also

• Hindu marriage
• Harana (elopement)
• Bride-show

Further reading

• Bakker, Hans (1996). "PĀRVATĪ'S SVAYAṂVARA (Studies in the Skandapurāṇa I)". Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens [Vienna Journal of South Asian Studies]. 40: 5–43. JSTOR 24007767. Accessed 22 Dec. 2022.
• BIARDEAU, M. (1985). "NALA ET DAMAYANTĪ, HÉROS ÉPIQUES". Indo-Iranian Journal. 28 (1): 1–34. JSTOR 24653943. Accessed 22 Dec. 2022.
• Insler, S. (1989). "Damayantī's Svayaṁvara". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 109 (4): 577–80. doi:10.2307/604081. JSTOR 604081. Accessed 22 Dec. 2022.
• Mehendale, M. A. (1991). "DAMAYANTĪ'S SVAYAṀVARA". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 72/73 (1/4): 483–86. JSTOR 41694912. Accessed 22 Dec. 2022.
• Parkhill, Thomas (1984). "From Trifle to Story: A Study of 'Nala and Damayantī'". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 52 (2): 325–41. doi:10.1093/jaarel/52.2.325. JSTOR 1464002. Accessed 22 Dec. 2022.
• Sutherland, Sally J. (1989). "Sītā and Draupadī: Aggressive Behavior and Female Role-Models in the Sanskrit Epics". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 109 (1): 63–79. doi:10.2307/604337. JSTOR 604337. Accessed 22 Dec. 2022.