Eumenes
Eumenes of Cardia | |
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Native name | Εὐμένης |
Born | 361 BC[2] Cardia (near the Gulf of Saros, Turkey) |
Died | winter of 316-315 BC (aged 45)[3] Gabiene, Persia (modern-day Iran) |
Cause of death | Strangulation (Execution) |
Allegiance | Macedonian Empire |
Years of service | fl. 361–315 BC |
Rank | Personal secretary General Satrap of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia |
Battles/wars | Wars of Alexander the Great First Diadochi War Battle of the Hellespont Battle of Orkynia Second Diadochi War Battle of Paraitakene Battle of Gabiene ![]() |
Spouse(s) | Artonis, daughter of Achaemenid satrap Artabazus II |
Eumenes (/juːˈmɛniːz/; Greek: Εὐμένης; fl. 361–315 BC) was a Greek general, satrap, and Successor of Alexander the Great. He participated in the Wars of Alexander the Great, serving as Alexander's personal secretary and later on as a battlefield commander. Eumenes depicted himself as a lifelong loyalist of Alexander's dynasty and championed the cause of the Macedonian Argead royal house.[4]
In the Wars of the Diadochi after Alexander's death, Eumenes initially supported the regent Perdiccas in the First Diadochi War, and later the Argead royalty in the Second Diadochi War. Despite less experience as a commander, Eumenes defeated Craterus, one of Alexander's most accomplished generals, at the Battle of the Hellespont in 321 BC. After Perdiccas' murder in 320 BC Eumenes became a public enemy of the new Post-Alexander regime under Antipater and Antigonus. In 319 BC he was defeated by Antigonus at the Battle of Orkynia and confined to Nora, but eventually left.
Eumenes then allied with Polyperchon and Olympias, Alexander's mother, against Cassander. From 318 BC onward he led a hard-fought campaign against Antigonus, defeating him at the Battle of Paraitakene, then being indecisively defeated later at the Battle of Gabiene. Afterward, Eumenes was betrayed by his soldiers (the Silver Shields) and given over to Antigonus. Antigonus executed him in the winter of 316–315 BC.
The Greek biographer and essayist Plutarch chose Eumenes as the focus of one of his biographies in Parallel Lives, where he was paired with Quintus Sertorius, the rebel Roman general who led a revolt against Rome in the 70s BC.
Early career
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Thracian_chersonese_Full.png/220px-Thracian_chersonese_Full.png)
Eumenes was a native of Cardia in the Thracian Chersonese.[5] His father, a prominent citizen of Cardia, was named Hieronymus.[6] Hieronymus cultivated a friendship with Philip II of Macedon which eventually led Eumenes to be employed as a private royal secretary (grammateus) by Philip, probably in 342 BC.[7][8] He may have sought refuge in Macedonia because of the tyrant Hecataeus of Cardia's enmity toward his family.[9]
Eumenes also impressed Alexander's mother, Olympias, who later called him "the most faithful of my friends".[10] Despite the position of secretary being looked down on by Macedonians, Eumenes held significant authority in the office, as he oversaw all written communications and maintained a close relationship with the king.[11]
Eumenes served as hetairoi (companion and cavalry captain) and royal secretary under both Philip and Philip's successor, Alexander the Great.[12] After Philip's death (336 BC) Eumenes remained loyal to Alexander and Olympias and accompanied Alexander into Asia,[13] but for most of his reign served as royal secretary.[14] Eumenes did not get along with Hephaestion, Alexander's closest companion, repeatedly arguing with him over "trivial matters".[15][16]
After Alexander's victory at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, Eumenes began performing military and diplomatic missions, such as his pronouncement to Sangala in 326.[17] He may have played a larger part in Alexander's eastern campaign, especially in India, than the surviving accounts say.[18] Eumenes was promoted to leader of the companion cavalry (hipparch), formerly held by Perdiccas following Hephaestion's death in late 324 BC.[19][20] Eumenes also participated in the Marriages at Susa in 324 BC with the other hetairoi.[21]
After Alexander's death in 323 BC, Eumenes was left without much standing, since his position depended closely on the king. Alexander had left no apparent heir.[22] When Alexander's leading officers (somatophylakes and others) and a mass of infantry were debating whether one of the living Argeads should ascend or a regency should be installed for Alexander's unborn child (Alexander IV), Eumenes was present alongside the officers but did not speak.[23][24] When the officers fled Babylon in the ensuing riot of the infantry, Eumenes remained in the city to make Meleager (the leader of the disgruntled infantry) come to an agreement with the officers.[25]
Eumenes used his Cardian heritage to argue he had no personal motivation in the "Macedonian" struggle.[26] The infantry were willing to listen to Eumenes because of his close association with Alexander.[27] The officers eventually subdued Meleager and regained control over Babylon by announcing a joint kingship between Philip III Arrhidaeus and, when he was born, Alexander IV. Perdiccas became regent, effective ruler of the vast Asian section of Alexander's Empire, and Eumenes served as his advisor.[28] Eumenes procured Alexander's "Last Plans" and gave them to Perdiccas, who read them out before the soldiers before rejecting them.[29]
Satrap of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia (323–319 BC)
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Partition_of_Babylon_323_BC.png/310px-Partition_of_Babylon_323_BC.png)
Alexander's Empire was split in the Partition of Babylon (323 BC), where Cappadocia and Paphlagonia were assigned to a reluctant Eumenes, but they were not yet subdued.[30] The Achaemenid satrap and king Ariarathes still held Cappadocia, and the Paphlagonian tribes had renounced allegiance to the Macedonian government.[31] Eumenes thus had to subdue these forces to attain his satrapy. Perdiccas used his authority as regent of the joint kings to order Leonnatus, satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, and Antigonus, satrap of Phrygia, Pamphylia and Lycia, to aid Eumenes in securing his satrapy.[32] Eumenes left Babylon in the late summer of 323 BC.[33]
Eumenes was probably given 5000 talents of gold from Perdiccas for the reconquest of Cappadocia.[34] Leonnatus accompanied him, but Antigonus ignored Perdiccas' order.[35] Eumenes arrived in Cappadocia and began to hire mercenaries. Leonnatus, however, was requested by Hecataeus of Cardia to march west to relieve Antipater who was besieged at Lamia as part of the Lamian War.[36] Leonnatus agreed to go west, as he had received letters from Cleopatra of Macedon (daughter of Olympias, sister of Alexander the Great) asking him to marry her and become king of Macedon.[37]
Leonnatus attempted to induce Eumenes to reconcile with Hecataeus and accompany him to Macedon to share in his far-reaching designs.[38] Eumenes refused, fearing Antipater would murder him if he returned, and felt "[unwilling] to abandon his standing with Perdiccas for a mad and dangerous dash to Macedonia".[39] He told Leonnatus he would give his answer later, then fled back to Perdiccas early in 322 BC, telling the regent of Leonnatus' plans. For this, Perdiccas elevated Eumenes to the ruling council of the Empire.[40][41]
Eumenes joined Perdiccas, who installed him in Cappadocia by defeating and killing Ariarathes in the summer of 322.[42] Eumenes reorganized his satrapy and appointed his supporters to prominent positions.[43] The two generals traveled to Cilicia by autumn.[44] Eumenes then returned to Cappadocia to aid Neoptolemus (satrap of Armenia) in his efforts to subdue the Satrapy of Armenia.[45] Neoptolemus' soldiers, disgruntled with authority, refused to listen to Eumenes just as they had refused Neoptolemus.[46] Eumenes subdued them by raising 6300 cavalry from Cappadocia, and made his satrapy peaceful and loyal by giving the Cappadocians monetary concessions.[47] Eumenes probably successfully campaigned in Armenia throughout 322 and 321 BC.[46]
The arrival of Cleopatra and war
[edit]In the spring of 321 BC, Nicaea (daughter of Antipater) and Cleopatra of Macedon both came to Perdiccas and offered themselves as his bride.[48] Eumenes may have played a role in Cleopatra's arrival; when she arrived, he championed her proposal over that of Nicaea.[49] Eumenes' advice carried weight as the common soldiers respected him after his pacifying of Armenia.[50]
Perdiccas married Nicaea, but when his control over Philip III was challenged by Eurydice, he sent Eumenes to Cleopatra to reopen negotiations for marriage.[51] Antigonus fled to Macedonia, and informed Antipater of Perdiccas' intentions to divorce his daughter Nicaea and marry Cleopatra.[52] Craterus and Antipater, having subdued most of Greece in the Lamian War, were infuriated by Antigonus' news. They suspended their plans for more campaigns in Greece and prepared to pass into Asia and depose Perdiccas.[53]
Asia Minor and the Hellespont
[edit]Perdiccas and his government decided to attack Egypt, as Ptolemy had, through the help of a Perdiccan officer, obtained Alexander the Great's funeral carriage.[54] Eumenes, in turn, was given supreme command (as autokrator) in Asia Minor to beat back Antipater and Craterus who were mustering armies in Greece.[55][56]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Map_Anatolia_ancient_regions-en.svg/280px-Map_Anatolia_ancient_regions-en.svg.png)
Eumenes marched to the Hellespont, following orders to defend it,[57][56] and spoke to Cleopatra again at Sardis, who this time refused to marry Perdiccas, uncertain of who would win in the war to come.[58] Antigonus, who sailed over with a fleet and landed in western Asia Minor, succeeded in winning over many satraps and cities (Asander of Caria, Menander of Lydia, among others).[59] Eumenes narrowly escaped capture in Sardis thanks to Cleopatra's warning.[59][58] Eumenes then retreated inland as Cleitus the White defected with his fleet (allowing Craterus and Antipater to cross), and Perdiccas, hearing of these disasters, ordered Neoptolemus and Alcetas to obey him.[60][59] Both of these Macedonian officers resented Eumenes, and refused to do so.[61]
Eumenes received messages from Craterus and Antipater once they had reached Asia Minor, promising to retain him in his satrapy if he joined them.[62] Craterus wanted to reconcile Eumenes with Antipater, while Eumenes wanted to reconcile Craterus with Perdiccas; negotiations eventually broke down, as Eumenes stayed loyal to Perdiccas, and Craterus to Antipater.[62][63] Eumenes then discovered Neoptolemus was planning to defect to Craterus and Antipater, and defeated him in battle in Phrygia, recruiting much of his army.[62][64] Neoptolemus fled to Craterus and Antipater with 300 horsemen, and convinced them to march: soon after, Craterus took the majority of the Macedonian army to confront Eumenes.[65]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/The_fight_of_Eumenes_of_Cardia_against_Neoptolemus%2C_Wars_of_the_Diadochi.jpg/330px-The_fight_of_Eumenes_of_Cardia_against_Neoptolemus%2C_Wars_of_the_Diadochi.jpg)
Despite possessing far lower quality infantry than Craterus, Eumenes accepted the offer of battle, believing in his superior cavalry, beginning the Battle of the Hellespont.[66] Eumenes concealed Craterus' name from his soldiers, knowing his popularity would sway their loyalty, instead claiming the unknown warlord "Pigres" had joined Neoptolemus and was marching against them.[67] Eumenes also proclaimed he had received a dream that his army would be victorious.[68] During the battle, Eumenes prevented any Macedonians from recognizing the popular Craterus through his troop placement and tactics, and as a result Craterus was killed, his flank overran by Eumenes' Cappadocian cavalry.[69][65] Eumenes rode over to his left flank and killed Neoptolemus in single combat, then induced the enemy infantry to surrender, winning a "stunning victory".[70][71][72][42]
The victory brought Eumenes the enmity of some of his men due to his foreign heritage.[73] He attempted to compel Craterus' infantry phalanx to desert to him, but failed and the infantry hastily marched south to link up with Antipater.[74] News of Eumenes' victory, which might have restored Perdiccas' authority, reached Egypt only one day after Perdiccas was assassinated by his men in a mutiny (320 BC).[75]
After the death of Perdiccas and Triparadisus
[edit]After the murder of Perdiccas in Egypt, the Macedonian generals condemned Eumenes (and the other Perdiccans) to death at the Conference at Triparadisus, with Antipater assigning Antigonus as his chief executioner.[76][77] Eumenes' province of Cappadocia was officially transferred to Nicanor,[78] and Antigonus was given a large army to destroy the remaining Perdiccans in Asia.[79][80] Eumenes was now in "far worse circumstances than he had been at Alexander's death" as he was an outlaw and being actively hunted, but he had an experienced, loyal army and prepared for the coming conflict with Antigonus.[81]
Following Triparadisus, Antigonus placed a bounty on the Greek general's head of 100 talents of gold.[82] News of this came immediately after Eumenes' financial rewards, so his officers and men were outraged and redoubled their efforts to protect their leader, assigning a large bodyguard of 1000 men to protect him at all times.[83] He was also given the privilege of granting purple hats and cloaks to his soldiers, an honour usually only allowed for a Macedonian king.[84] Eumenes further consolidated loyalty by arguing to his men that the joint kings[85] had been taken by traitors to the Macedonian throne and that, in effect, he and his army were still loyalists to the Argead house.[84]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Philip_III_Arrhidaios_Babylon_mint_struck_under_Perdikkas_circa_323_320_BC.jpg/270px-Philip_III_Arrhidaios_Babylon_mint_struck_under_Perdikkas_circa_323_320_BC.jpg)
Eumenes first travelled to Mount Ida where there was a royal stable, and took a large number of horses to replenish his Cappadocian cavalry. He took the time to file an account with the overseers of the stables despite his outlaw status.[86][87] Upon hearing this, Antipater was greatly amused, however, it is clear that Eumenes made this move to show that he was acting under the law and in the service of the Argead House.[86]
Eumenes marched to the Hellespont, where he quartered his army and plundered the locals who refused to pay his soldiers.[88] He "continued to demonstrate his prowess as a military commander," attacking Hellespontine Phrygia and Phrygia itself while Antigonus and Antipater were present (on their return trip to Macedonia).[88][89] Since he would be facing a force superior in infantry, Eumenes decided to position himself in the plains of Sardis of Lydia where his advantage in cavalry would be decisive.[88] To further guarantee the loyalty of subordinates, Eumenes also sold off the estates of Phrygia to them and provided military support to claim the purchased land from the, obviously, unwilling and disgruntled Phrygian property owners.[81] This revenue was used to pay his soldiers.[90]
He had also hoped to win the support of Cleopatra of Macedon, who was present in Sardis at the time.[91] Cleopatra and Eumenes had been friends since childhood, however, Cleopatra was not willing to back what seemed to be a losing cause and implored Eumenes to leave the area lest she incur the wrath of Antipater. Eumenes obliged her and moved north into Phrygia to winter.[92] Eumenes' plundering campaigns during this time were very successful, so much so that Antipater's soldiers began to become disgruntled.[88][93] Eumenes spent the winter of 320/319 BC in Celaenae.[94]
In the winter, Eumenes sent messages to the other Perdiccan leaders, including Alcetas and Attalus (Perdiccas' brother-in-law), imploring them to unite their forces against Antigonus.[95] A conference was held with the Perdiccan leaders in Celaenae: Eumenes argued that Antipater and Antigonus were unpopular, and that a united offensive would not only prove successful but also attract many deserters.[96] Negotiations broke down, however, as neither Eumenes nor Alcetas would serve the other, and other commanders contested the chief position.[94] Eumenes also dealt with a defection of 3500 of his men this winter; he executed the leaders and pardoned the soldiers.[97]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Eumenes_of_Cardia.jpg/220px-Eumenes_of_Cardia.jpg)
Despite his superior military skills, Eumenes' Macedonian generals approached him about one of them taking overall command. Eumenes retorted that "formalities and technicalities would not protect them from death and destruction".
Orkynia
[edit]In 319 BC, Antigonus marched his army into Cappodocia and engaged Eumenes at the Battle of Orkynia;[82] Eumenes accepted the battle as the ground was advantageous for cavalry. Here, Eumenes was easily defeated due to the mid-battle desertion of a mercenary cavalry officer named Apollonides, who Antigonus had bribed.[98][99] Antigonus may have also used a ruse (pretending he received reinforcements) to discourage Eumenes' men before the battle.[100] Although defeated, Eumenes swiftly acted to chase down and execute Apollonides, which restored the faith of his men.[101]
Eumenes was put to flight, however, and moved toward Armenia.[102][103] Antigonus pursued Eumenes and forced him to move carefully.[104] Following the battle, Antigonus had neglected to address the dead and had immediately set off in pursuit for Eumenes. Determined to follow tradition, Plutarch reports that Eumenes made the bold and unexpected move to regain the battlefield so that he could construct a proper funeral pyre for the dead.[105] This action greatly impressed Antigonus.[106]
Remainder of the campaign
[edit]The remainder of the campaign turned into a battle of manoeuvre, with Eumenes avoiding further battle with Antigonus. At one point, Eumenes was in a position to capture the baggage of Antigonus' forces.[107] Eumenes knew that he would not be able to prevent his soldiers from plundering this loot if they found out about it and also that doing so would decrease the essential mobility of his forces.[108][107] Eumenes dispatched a private message to his old friend, the general Menander, advising him to move the baggage uphill so that its capture would be impossible.[109] Menander immediately followed this advice.[110] Eumenes feigned disappointment to his men and moved on. Menander and the other Antigonid officers were shocked by Eumenes' warning and thought him to be a paragon of virtue; only Antigonus knew of Eumenes' real motives.[111] This action is also ironic when compared to the steps Antigonus had to take to finally defeat Eumenes.
Eumenes was pursued by Antigonus for several weeks until the following winter.[112] He attempted guerrila warfare to hold off Antigonus, but his men were deserting him.[113][114] In the late spring of 319 BC, Eumenes disbanded his army, save for a small, crack force of 600 men and holed up in Nora, a strong and well-supplied fortress on the border between Cappadocia and Lycaonia.[115][116][117] Antigonus arrived shortly after and decided to enter into negotiation with Eumenes instead of undergoing a lengthy siege.[118]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Demirkazik_Crest_of_Aladag_Mountains_in_Nigde_Turkey.jpg/220px-Demirkazik_Crest_of_Aladag_Mountains_in_Nigde_Turkey.jpg)
Eumenes required Antigonus to send hostages to Nora before he was willing to come out and negotiate.[119] Antigonus wanted to acquire Eumenes as his own officer and so first demanded that Eumenes address him as a superior officer. Eumenes refused, replying:
While I am able to wield a sword, I shall think no man greater than myself.[119]
Despite their appointed role as enemies, Antigonus and Eumenes were actually old friends, and when they met they renewed their friendship, speaking amiably to one another.[120] Eumenes' demands for surrender were that he retain Cappadocia as his satrapy and his status as outlaw be rescinded.[118][121] Antigonus completed his siege constructions around Nora (blockading Eumenes in) and said he would ask the regent Antipater to confirm Eumenes' demands.[122] Eumenes, unsatisfied after the long conference, was willing to hold out longer for a more favourable position in the imperial hierarchy. Antigonus departed with his army to confront the remaining Perdiccans, who were led by Alcetas and Attalus in Pisidia, whom he defeated.[123][113]
Eumenes kept the morale of his besieged men high by mingling with them regularly, aided, apparently, by his friendly appearance.[124] In the cramped city, he was forced to come up with novel solutions so that his men and horses remained in fighting shape including; emptying large rooms where men exercised on a set schedule, and creating a suspension device, likened to an ancient treadmill, on which horses could run.[125][126]
Eumenes sent envoys under his friend and countryman Hieronymus of Cardia to Antipater to negotiate his surrender, probably in the late summer of 319 BC.[127] Nothing came of this, however.[128] Eumenes effectively held out for more than a year until the death of Antipater threw his opponents into disarray.[42]
The Second War of the Diadochi
[edit]Antipater had become regent since Triparadisus, when he acquired the joint kings from the dead Perdiccas. He had taken them to Macedonia, but after his death left the regency to his friend Polyperchon instead of his son Cassander.[129][130] Cassander, therefore, allied himself with Antigonus, Lysimachus and Ptolemy as he prepared to confront Polyperchon.[42] Following Antipater's death, Antigonus sent generous terms to Eumenes in Nora through Hieronymus of Cardia that were nearly the same as Eumenes' initial demands.[131] Eumenes probably agreed to the terms in 318 BC, swore loyalty to Antigonus, and left Nora.[132][133] Another, less probable[134] account says that Eumenes escaped Nora by rewriting his oath of loyalty to the joint kings[135] instead of Antigonus.
With Macedonia in disarray, Antigonus prepared to conquer outward, revolt against the joint kings, and expand his power.[137] Polyperchon, in order to shore up his allies in the coming conflict with Cassander, had written to Olympias requesting help; Olympias, in turn, wrote to Eumenes for advice (who she had been in contact with).[138] Eumenes told her to wait and see what would happen.[139] Soon after, in the late summer of 318 BC, Polyperchon wrote to Eumenes himself, requesting an alliance in the name of the joint kings.[140][139][141]
Polyperchon said Eumenes could march to Macedonia and become guardian of the kings, or stay in Asia with supreme command over the region and remain "a protector of royalty" abroad.[142] Furthermore he promised Eumenes command over the Asian treasuries (Susa and Cyinda, which would allow Eumenes to hire many mercenaries) and the allegiance of the formidable Silver Shields, highly skilled veterans who had fought with Alexander for years, if he accepted.[143][139]
Eumenes decided to accept Polyperchon's offer, either out of a wish to protect the Argead royalty and Olympias, or because of his own ambition and disinclination to be subordinate to another.[142] Eumenes' acceptance meant the war in Asia with Antigonus would start once again.
Eumenes acted quickly to muster his army and marched into Cilicia, where he allied with Antigenes and Teutamus, the commanders of the famous Silver Shields.[144] Eumenes again demonstrated his cleverness and was able to secure control over these men by playing on their loyalty to, and superstitious awe of, Alexander. [145] He claimed that Alexander had visited him in a dream and told him that he would be present with them at every battle. Eumenes even went so far as to set up a tent for the late conqueror complete with a throne. He used the royal treasury at Kyinda to recruit an army of mercenaries to add to his own troops.[146]
In 317 BC, Eumenes left Cilicia and marched into Syria and Phoenicia, and began to raise a naval force on behalf of Polyperchon.[147] When it was ready, he sent the fleet west to reinforce Polyperchon, but it was met by Antigonus's fleet off the coast of Cilicia, and the fleet of Eumenes changed sides.[148]
Meanwhile, Antigonus had settled his affairs in Asia Minor and marched east to take out Eumenes before he could do further damage. Eumenes somehow had advance knowledge of this and marched out of Phoenica, through Syria into Mesopotamia, with the idea of gathering support in the upper satrapies.[149]
Eumenes in the East
[edit]Eumenes gained the support of Amphimachos, the satrap of Mesopotamia,[150] then marched his army into Northern Babylonia, where he put them into winter quarters. During the winter he negotiated with Seleucus, the satrap of Babylonia, and Peithon, the satrap of Media, seeking their help against Antigonus.[151] Unable to sway Seleucus and Peithon, Eumenes left his winter quarters early and marched on Susa, a major royal treasury, in Susiana.[152] In Susa, Eumenes sent letters to all the satraps to the north and east of Susiana, ordering them in the kings' names to join him with all their forces.[153] When the satraps joined Eumenes he had a considerable force, with which he could look forward with some confidence to doing battle against Antigonus.[154] Eumenes then marched southeastwards into Persia, where he picked up additional reinforcements.[155]
Antigonus, meanwhile, had reached Susa and left Seleucus there to besiege the place while he himself marched after Eumenes. At the river Kopratas, Eumenes surprised Antigonus during the crossing of the river and killed or captured 4,000 of his men.[156] Antigonus, faced with disaster, decided to abandon the crossing and turned back northward, marching up into Media, threatening the upper satrapies.[157] Eumenes wanted to march westward and cut Antigonus's supply lines, but the satraps refused to abandon their satrapies and forced Eumenes to stay in the east.
In the late summer of 316 BC, Antigonus moved southward again in the hope of bringing Eumenes to battle and ending the war quickly. Eventually, the two armies met in southern Media and fought the indecisive Battle of Paraitakene.[158] Antigonus, whose casualties were more numerous, force marched his army to safety the next night.[159] During the winter of 316–315 BC, Antigonus tried to surprise Eumenes in Persis by marching his army across a desert and catching his enemy off guard; unfortunately, he was observed by some locals who reported it to his opponents.[160] A few days later both armies drew up for battle. The Battle of Gabiene was as indecisive as the previous battle at Parataikene.[161] According to Plutarch and Diodorus, Eumenes had won the battle but lost control of his army's baggage camp thanks to his ally Peucestas' duplicity or incompetence. In addition to all the loot of the Silver Shields (treasure accumulated over 30 years of successful warfare including gold, silver, gems and other booty), the soldiers' women and children were taken, and Eumenes' army wished to negotiate their return.
Teutamus, one of their commanders, sent the request to Antigonus, who responded by demanding they give him Eumenes. The Silver Shields complied, arrested Eumenes and his officers, and handed them over.[162] The war was thus at an end. Eumenes was placed under guard while Antigonus held a council to ponder his fate. Antigonus, supported by his son Demetrius, was disinclined to kill Eumenes, but most of the council insisted that he execute Eumenes and so it was decided.[163]
Death
[edit]Antigonus, according to Plutarch, starved Eumenes for three days but finally sent an executioner to dispatch him when the time came for him to move his camp. Eumenes' body was given to his friends to be burnt with honour, and his ashes were conveyed in a silver urn to his wife and children.[163]
Legacy
[edit]Despite Eumenes' undeniable skills as a general, he never commanded the full allegiance of the Macedonian officers in his army and died as a result. He was an able commander, skilled in both tactics and strategy, who did his utmost to maintain the unity of Alexander's empire in Asia, and is seen as being Antigonus' only military equal.[164][165] Still, his efforts were frustrated by generals and satraps both nominally under his command and under that of his enemies.[42] Eumenes was hated and despised by many fellow commanders—certainly for his successes and supposedly for his non-Macedonian (in the tribal sense) background and prior office as Royal Secretary.
Eumenes defeat has been seen as spelling the end for the Argead loyalists, leaving Alexander's Empire "in the hands of men who owed no loyalty except to themselves."[166] Bosworth believes Eumenes' conflict with Antigonus "did more than anything to define the shape of the Hellenistic world".[167] Romm writes that "Through sheer talent Eumenes had risen through the ranks; despite his Greek origins, he had come desperately close to gaining supreme power."[168] Eumenes has been seen as a tragic figure, a man who seemingly tried to do the right thing but was overcome by a more ruthless enemy and the treachery of his own soldiers; in essence, that he failed not due to any lack of ability, but from "ill luck, bad alliances, and one very capable opponent."[169]
Historie is a historical fiction manga series that tells the life story of Eumenes.
Family
[edit]Pharnabazus III, Persian satrap of Phrygia, was his brother-in-law, as Eumenes married Artonis, the daughter of Persian satrap Artabazus II and sister of Pharnabazus III.
For Barsine, the daughter of Artabazus, who was the first lady Alexander took to his bed in Asia, and who brought him a son named Heracles, had two sisters; one of which, called Apame, he gave to Ptolemy; and the other, called Artonis, he gave to Eumenes, at the time when he was selecting Persian ladies as wives for his friends.
— Plutarch, The Life of Eumenes.[170]
References
[edit]- ^ https://www.academia.edu/40812159 p.1 asserts they were struck in 317-316 BC, before the battles of Paraitakene and Gabiene in 315.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 41.
- ^ Heckel 2006, p. 120; Anson 2015, p. 41; Nep., 13.1.
- ^ Waterfield 2011, p. 102; Heckel 2006, p. 120. However other scholars believes Eumenes did so opportunistically. Essentially, that he remained loyal because; Bosworth 2005, p. 168, "he had no alternative but loyalty to the crown" if he wanted to pursue his own interests and retain power. In short; Anson 2015, p. 1 "As with his contemporaries, Eumenes' first concern was his own self-interest, not any loftier ideals".
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 42; Nep., 1.2-3: Eumenes was probably of very high birth.
- ^ Heckel 2006, p. 120. Claims that his father was a waggoner or musician are probably false and invented to shame Eumenes, since these were considered unmanly professions. Generally; Anson 2015, pp. 41, 42 argues these may simply be another romantic (and false) "rags-to-riches" story.
- ^ Anson 2015, pp. 42–43; Plut. Eum., 1.2.
- ^ Nep., 1.5.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 43.
- ^ Heckel 2006, p. 120; Anson 2015, pp. 51–53; Diod., 18.58.2. Anson believes this statement originates after Philip's death, when Olympias returned to Macedon and attacked her political rivals. Eumenes is said to have been "long hated" by Antipater, maybe because of the latter's hatred of Olympias or his support of Hecataeus; Plut. Eum., 3.4.
- ^ Anson 2015, pp. 46, 57; Plut. Eum., 1.3, "Neoptolemus,the commander of the Shield-bearers, after Alexander's death, said that he had followed the king with shield and spear, but Eumenes with pen and paper,".
- ^ Anson 2015, pp. 49, 52.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 51; Chisholm 1911.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 53.
- ^ Plut. Eum., 2.1, 2.4.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 54 argues the enmity was personal, not political. After Hephaestion's death in 324, Eumenes praised him and contributed monetarily to his tomb construction to smooth over relations with Alexander.
- ^ Plut. Eum., 1.2.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 57.
- ^ Romm 2011, p. 39; Heckel 2006, p. 120. Perdiccas himself was promoted to chiliarch, second in command to Alexander, the office Hephaestion held before his death.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 57, who believes Eumenes appointment could have been honorary or due to his skill in commanding cavalry.
- ^ Diod., 17.107.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 60.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 68. Eumenes was considered, apparently, one of "the chief and most influential commanders of the [cavalry]".
- ^ Waterfield 2011, p. 21.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 68; Romm 2011, p. 66; Waterfield 2011, p. 24; Plut. Eum., 3.1. Anson and Waterfield believe Eumenes did so in collusion with Perdiccas, who was leading the officers .
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 69; Plut. Eum., 3.1.
- ^ Plut. Eum., 1.3.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 78.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 78; Heckel 2006, p. 121.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 79; Plut. Eum., 3.2.
- ^ Plut. Eum., 3.2.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 79.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 80.
- ^ Plut. Eum., 3.3.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 82.
- ^ Plut. Eum., 3.5.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 84; Heckel 2006, p. 121.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 84; Plut. Eum., 3.5.
- ^ Waterfield 2011, p. 38.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 84.
- ^ a b c d e Chisholm 1911.
- ^ Anson 2015, pp. 88, 89.
- ^ Anson 2015, pp. 89, 90.
- ^ a b Anson 2015, p. 91.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 91; Plut. Eum., 4.2, 4.3. Concessions as in lowered taxes and gifts of money. This incident, with the Greek Eumenes succeeding where the Macedonian Neoptolemus could not, may have began the latter's hatred for Eumenes.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 94.
- ^ Romm 2011, p. 169; Anson 2015, pp. 96–97, who suggests that Eumenes support for Cleopatra was not out of royal loyalty, but because he did not want Perdiccas to become allied to his enemy, Antipater. Eumenes may have thought that conflict with Antipater for the Perdiccan government was inevitable in any case, p.102.
- ^ Plut. Eum., 4.3.
- ^ Anson 2015, pp. 101, 104. Anson believes Eumenes had kept in contact and advised Cleopatra after Perdiccas married Nicaea. It is known that Eumenes and Cleopatra were childhood friends.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 103. Perdiccas' marriage to Cleopatra would give him a claim to the Macedonian throne.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 103.
- ^ Anson 2015, pp. 105-106. Perdiccas had planned for it to travel to Macedon and further his claim to the throne, the Perdiccan government also believed Ptolemy had been in contact with Antipater and Craterus.
- ^ Anson 2015, pp. 106-107. He probably received the command due to his loyalty to Perdiccas, skill in battle, and victories in Cappadocia and Armenia. Eumenes' satrapy was also expanded to include Antigonus' old provinces.
- ^ a b Heckel 2006, p. 121.
- ^ Bosworth 2005, p. 84. Eumenes, again, served as subordinate Perdiccas and was to cooperate with Neoptolemus and Alcetas. His specific orders were to prevent Craterus and Antipater from crossing into Asia Minor; he failed in this.
- ^ a b Anson 2015, p. 111.
- ^ a b c Waterfield 2011, p. 58.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 112.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 114-115; Waterfield 2011, p. 58; Heckel 2006, p. 121. Neoptolemus disliked Eumenes because of his campaign in Armenia, while Alcetas had been distanced from his brother Perdiccas and saw his advice (marrying Nicaea) tossed out in favour of Eumenes' plan. Additionally, Eumenes was a Greek, a foreigner, not a Macedonian aristocrat like them, and this made them disrespect him. Alcetas also feared battle with Craterus would make their armies defect to the popular general.
- ^ a b c Anson 2015, p. 117.
- ^ Plut. Eum., 5.4, 5.5.
- ^ Plut. Eum., 5.3, 5.4. Eumenes' infantry were defeated, but he won the battle with his cavalry, capturing Neoptolemus' baggage and putting his army to rout.
- ^ a b Waterfield 2011, p. 59.
- ^ Anson 2015, pp. 109, 119. The battle took place 10 days after Neoptolemus' defection.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 119.
- ^ Plut. Eum., 6.5-7.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 120. Some traditions say Craterus was not killed in the battle, but died of his wounds after it.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 121.
- ^ Waterfield 2011, pp. 59–60.
- ^ Romm 2011, p. 196.
- ^ Plut. Eum., 8.1.
- ^ Nep., 4.3.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 122. The chronology of the Diadochi Wars are contested among scholars, with three accepted chronologies: Low, High, and a mix of both. Anson argues extensively (pp.129-131) for 320 (the 'Low' dating) as the year of Perdiccas' murder.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 125. The reason for this condemnation, beyond the fact that Eumenes had supported the now deposed Perdiccas, was because of his killing of Craterus and Neoptolemus, which infuriated the assembled troops; Plut. Eum., 8.2.
- ^ Waterfield 2011, p. 65.
- ^ Diod., 18.39.6.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 127.
- ^ Waterfield 2011, p. 67.
- ^ a b Waterfield 2011, p. 70.
- ^ a b Anson 2015, p. 143.
- ^ Plut. Eum., 8.6.
- ^ a b Anson 2015, p. 132.
- ^ Philip III and Alexander IV had accompanied Perdiccas as he moved into Egypt. With Perdiccas' death, the two kings passed into the hands of Antipater and Antigonus. Antipater became regent; growing suspicions between the two led Antipater to take the two kings to Macedonia.
- ^ a b Anson 2015, p. 133.
- ^ Plut. Eum., 8.3.
- ^ a b c d Anson 2015, p. 135.
- ^ Waterfield 2011, p. 69.
- ^ Waterfield 2011, pp. 70, 71.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 135; Plut. Eum., 8.4.
- ^ Anson 2015, pp. 135–136.
- ^ Bosworth 2005, p. 89.
- ^ a b Plut. Eum., 8.4.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 139; Romm 2011, pp. 209, 353, points out that Eumenes, in his communications to the other Perdiccans (in which he had no reason to lie) "sought a restoration of the Babylon accords, the only legitimate plan for the organization of the empire, rather than a more ambitious goal".
- ^ Anson 2015, pp. 140-141. A united Perdiccan offensive would have outnumbered Antigonus' army greatly in both infantry and especially in cavalry.
- ^ Diod., 18.40.1-4.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 143; Waterfield 2011, p. 72. Eumenes reliance on cavalry meant the defection was very effective in crippling his army.
- ^ Diod., 18.40.5-8.
- ^ Billows 1990, p. 76, however; Anson 2015, p. 144 disbelieves it, arguing that Eumenes' cavalry superiority before the battle means he would have easily verified whether Antigonus had actually received reinforcements or not.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 144-145.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 145. Eumenes' campaigning there in 322/321 had pacified the area, but also probably meant he had contacts in there on whom he could rely.
- ^ Diod., 18.41.1.
- ^ Nep., 5.2.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 145 notes it is unclear how Eumenes' army performed this action, given Antigonus now had the advantage in cavalry and would thus have been able to easily scout his movements; Plut. Eum., 9.2.
- ^ Plut. Eum., 9.2.
- ^ a b Plut. Eum., 9.3.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 145. Having lost their baggage in the Battle of Orkynia, Eumenes' troops would obviously be very eager to plunder the baggage of their enemies.
- ^ Poly., 8.5.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 145.
- ^ Plut. Eum., 9.6. Plutarch writes that Antigonus said: "Nay, my good men, [Eumenes] did not let [the baggage] go out of regard for you, but because he was afraid to put such fetters on himself in his flight".
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 146.
- ^ a b Waterfield 2011, p. 72.
- ^ Bosworth 2005, p. 18.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 146. Anson believes this was done because Eumenes could not escape from Antigonus otherwise. Fewer men also alleviated supply demands, and Eumenes no doubt expected Antigonus to besiege him at Nora. Note; Nep., 5.3 who writes that Eumenes had 700 men, not 600.
- ^ Plut. Eum., 10.1 agrees with the 700 figure.
- ^ Diod., 18.41.2-3.
- ^ a b Anson 2015, p. 147.
- ^ a b Plut. Eum., 10.2.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 147; Plut. Eum., 10.3.
- ^ Diod., 18.41.6-7.
- ^ Diod., 18.41.7. That Eumenes and Antigonus accepted that regent Antipater had the final say in this case suggests they were still deferring to the Macedonian royalty (the joint kings Philip III and Alexander IV were with Antipater in Macedonia at this point).
- ^ Anson 2015, pp. 148, 150.
- ^ Plut. Eum., 11.1-2. Plutarch provides the only report of Eumenes' appearance; "He had a pleasant face, not like that of a war-worn veteran, but delicate and youthful, and all his body had ... artistic proportions ... and though he was not a powerful speaker, still he was insinuating and persuasive, as one may gather from his letters".
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 149.
- ^ Plut. Eum., 11.4-5.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 149; Diod., 18.42.1.
- ^ This might have been because Antipater was dead before Hieronymus arrived in Macedonia; both events are dated to the late summer of 319.
- ^ Waterfield 2011, p. 73.
- ^ Diod., 18.48.4.
- ^ Anson 2015, pp. 151-152. Antigonus' desire for Eumenes as a subordinate was for multiple reasons, their old friendship, Eumenes' skill as a commander, and that much of Antigonus' army were former Perdiccans who knew Eumenes.
- ^ Anson 2015, pp. 152–153; Diod., 18.53.5.
- ^ Waterfield 2011, p. 74.
- ^ Anson 2015, pp. 152-154 discusses this at length. In essence: Eumenes could not have known that Antipater's death would cause another war, Diodorus does not mention a changed oath (and he is more generally more reliable than Plutarch/Nepos), and the evidence suggests he served Antigonus for some time before accepting Polyperchon's offer.
- ^ If this occurred, swearing an oath to an infant (Alexander IV of Macedon) and a developmentally disabled man (Philip III Arrhidaeus), would have essentially gave Eumenes free rein to act in whatever manner he saw as in the best interest of the Argead Dynasty and, therefore, himself.
- ^ Anson 2015, pp. 51–53, 159.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 155.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 159. Cleopatra of Macedon's marriages were probably coordinated by Olympias with Eumenes' help. Olympias, here, "probably asked whether she could trust Polyperchon, Antipater's chosen successor," and Eumenes, having campaigned with the man under Alexander, could answer accurately.
- ^ a b c Waterfield 2011, p. 75.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 160.
- ^ Bosworth 2005, pp. 19, 52, 99.
- ^ a b Anson 2015, p. 162.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 162. Note; Diod., 18.58.2-4, where Olympias offers to help Eumenes by swaying commanders in the east to his side.
- ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XVIII 59,1-3.
- ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XVIII 60,1-60,3.
- ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XVIII 61,4-5
- ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XVIII 63,6.
- ^ Polyainos,Strategemata IV 6,9.
- ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XVIII 73,1-2.
- ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XVIII 39,6 and XIX 27,4.
- ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 12,1-2.
- ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 12,5-13,5.
- ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 13,6-7.
- ^ Richard A. Billows, Antigonos the One-Eyed and the Creation of the Hellenistic State p.90.
- ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 17,3-7.
- ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 18,3-7; Plutarch, Life of Eumenes, 14,1-2.
- ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 19,1-2.
- ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 26-32,2; Richard A. Billows, Antigonos the One-Eyed and the Creation of the Hellenistic State pp.95-98.
- ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 32,1-2
- ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 37,2-6; Plutarch, Life of Eumenes, 15,3-4; Polyainos, Strategemata IV 6,11 and 8,4.
- ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 42,1-3; Plutarch, Life of Eumenes, 16,5-6; Polyainos, Strategemata IV 6,13; Richard A. Billows, Antigonos the One-Eyed and the Creation of the Hellenistic State pp.100-102.
- ^ Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 42,4-43,8; Plutarch, Life of Eumenes, 16,4-17,1; Polyainos, Strategemata IV 6,13; Richard A. Billows, Antigonos the One-Eyed and the Creation of the Hellenistic State p.102-103.
- ^ a b Diodorus Sicilus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX 43,8-44,3; Plutarch, Life of Eumenes, 17,1-19,1; Richard A. Billows, Antigonos the One-Eyed and the Creation of the Hellenistic State p.104.
- ^ Bosworth 2005, pp. 9, 18.
- ^ Billows 1990, p. 318.
- ^ Waterfield 2011, p. 102.
- ^ Bosworth 2005, v.
- ^ Romm 2011, p. 303.
- ^ Anson 2015, p. 261.
- ^ Plutarch: Life of Eumenes - translation.
Bibliography
[edit]Ancient sources
[edit]- Plutarch (1919) [2nd century AD]. "Life of Eumenes". Parallel Lives. Loeb Classical Library. Vol. 8. Translated by Perrin, Bernadotte. OCLC 40115288 – via LacusCurtius.
- Diodorus (1947) [1st century BC]. "Books XVIII, XIX". Library of History. Loeb Classical Library. Vol. 9. Translated by Perrin, Bernadotte – via LacusCurtius.
- Cornelius Nepos (1929). Excellentium imperatorum vitae (De Viris Illustribus). Translated by Rolfe, J.C. – via Attalus.org.
- Polyaenus (1793). "Book 4, 6 & 8". Strategems. Translated by Shepherd, R. – via Attalus.org.
- Photius. "92. [Arrian, Continuation]". Bibliotheca or Myrobiblion – via tertullian.org.
- Justinus (1853). "Book 13-14". Epitome of Pompeius Trogus' Philippic Histories. Translated by Watson, J.S. – via Attalus.org.
Modern sources
[edit]- Anson, Edward M. (2015). Eumenes of Cardia: a Greek among Macedonians (2nd Edition). Vol. 383. ISBN 9004297154.
- Billows, Richard A. (1990). Antigonos the One-eyed and the creation of the Hellenistic state. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520208803.
- Boiy, Tom (2010). "ROYAL AND SATRAPAL ARMIES IN BABYLONIA DURING THE SECOND DIADOCH WAR. THE "CHRONICLE OF THE SUCCESSORS" ON THE EVENTS DURING THE SEVENTH YEAR OF PHILIP ARRHIDAEUS (=317/316 BC)". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 130 (3): 1–13. JSTOR 41722527 – via JSTOR.
- Bosworth, A.B. (2005). The Legacy of Alexander: Politics, Warfare, and Propaganda under the Successors. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198153061.
- Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 889.
- Heckel, Waldemar (2006). Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander's Empire. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 9781405112109.
- Romm, James (2011). Ghost on the Throne. Alfred A. Knoff: Random House. ISBN 9780307701503.
- Waterfield, Robin (2011). Dividing the Spoils. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195395235.
External links
[edit]- The Life of Eumenes by Plutarch Archived 2005-12-30 at the Wayback Machine
- The Historical Library by Diodorus - books XVIII and XIX
- The Life of Eumenes by Cornelius Nepos
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